Plato (The Apology)
The Apology is one of those rare works that gracefully bridges the divide between philosophy and literature. The work is less concerned with asserting any particular philosophical doctrines than it is with creating a portrait of the ideal philosopher. On
Plato (Crito)
Though brief, the Crito is a confusing and somewhat muddled dialogue. The difficulty Plato faced in composing the dialogue was to somehow justify Socrates' decision to stay in prison rather than try to escape after his wrongful condemnation. To do this, P
Plato (Gorgias)
Art
Throughout this dialogue, as well as in many of Plato's other works, the notion of artful pursuits comes up rather frequently. Essentially, an art is a skill directed towards some form of the good and intended for the benefit of those practicing and/o
Bacon (New Atlantis)
The Stagnation of Knowledge
Francis Bacon's works were a reaction to Bacon's view that the progress of knowledge and discovery had slowed down. While it is not clear what, for Bacon, was the 'golden age' of discovery, it is clear that he wanted to end the
Hobbes (Leviathian) Ch. 1-16, 21, 29, 30
Vain Glory
One of the main problems men face when they are in nature is gaining too much power. When they are popular people and have the ability to charm people into being their friends and followers, then they have the power to control and gain even mor
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Discourse on Arts & Sciences)
Rousseau: Ancient, Enlightened and Romantic
Rousseau combines a variety of philosophical traditions that were influential in 18th century France and that are still influential in the present day. First, Rousseau displays many affinities with ancient philo
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Discourse on the Origin of Inequality)
The Origin of Inequality
The Discourse on the Origin of Inequality is a detailed story about the beginnings of human inequality and its development to the present day. The Discourse begins by making a distinction between natural inequalities given by natu
Kant (Perpetual Peace)
In this essay, Kant proposed a peace program to be implemented by governments. The "Preliminary Articles" described these steps that should be taken immediately, or with all deliberate speed:
1. "No secret treaty of peace shall be held valid in which ther
Federalist Papers 1
Before beginning a more general analysis of Alexander Hamilton's remarks, it is necessary to provide the background of the political theory of educated men in the United States. First, most educated men, especially those who were at the heart of governing
Federalist Paper 6
The basic thrust of this federalist paper, like 6-9, is discussing "the dangers which in all probability flow from the dissensions between the states themselves, and from domestic factions and convulsions." Hamilton believed that if the states remained jo
Federalist Paper 9
It is important to understand Alexander Hamilton's political philosophy in order to clearly view this essay. During the Constitutional Convention, Hamilton proposed to copy the British constitution as closely as possible. In the first place, he advocated
Federalist Paper 10
James Madison carried to the Convention a plan that was the exact opposite of Hamilton's. In fact, the theory he advocated at Philadelphia and in his Federalist essays was developed as a republican substitute for the New Yorker's "high toned" scheme of st
Federalist Paper 37
Federalist Number 37 is the beginning of another of James Madison's series of work. Hamilton's series of fourteen papers on the vital need for an energetic constitution ended with Number 36, published on January 8, 1788. On January 11, Madison commenced w
Federalist Paper 49
In this essay, more than any other besides perhaps 51, Madison lays out his philosophy on free government. Madison does not state in the Federalist how the state of nature is abandoned and government created. We may assume, however, that his opinion does
Federalist Paper 50
Madison appears to be very careful in rejecting these calls for periodic public examinations of government conduct. He must be careful because such a proposal is deeply republican in character. The anti-federalists had been accusing the federalists of try
Federalist Paper 51
In this essay, Madison's thoughts on factionalism are delineated clearly. As we observed earlier, he assumed that conflicts of interests are inherent in human nature, and he recognized that, as a consequence, people fall into various groups. He wanted to
Alexis de Tocqueville (Democracy in America)
Tyranny of the Majority
In a democracy, tyranny of the majority happens when a legislative body enacts laws that favor the rights of a majority of the electorate and in so doing, diminish the rights of the corresponding minority. The potential for democra
John Stuart Mill (On Liberty)
Mill's mission in writing On Liberty can perhaps be best understood by looking at how he discussed his work in his Autobiography. Mill wrote that he believed On Liberty to be about "the importance, to man and society, of a large variety in types of charac
Marx (Communist Manifesto)
The Communist Manifesto reflects an attempt to explain the goals of Communism, as well as the theory underlying this movement. It argues that class struggles, or the exploitation of one class by another, are the motivating force behind all historical deve
Nietzsche (On the Uses & Disadvantages of History for Life)
The distrust of historical narratives
Nietzsche overtly argues against the blind acceptance of any single perspective. This includes the distrust of political agendas, but extends past that, including a systematic distrust of memory as a force. The danger
Beauvoir (Second Sex)
Immanence vs. Transcendence
De Beauvoir uses "immanence" to describe the historic domain assigned to women: a closed-off realm where women are interior, passive, static, and immersed in themselves. "Transcendence" designates the opposing male lot: active,
Arendt (What is Authority?)
The Human Condition is fundamentally concerned with the problem of reasserting the politics as a valuable ream of human action, praxis, and the world of appearances. Arendt argues that the Western philosophical tradition has devalued the world of human ac