tissues
groups of similar cells working together to provide a specific function
atoms
smallest units of matter which cannot be divided by normal chemical
and physical means
organs
layers of different tissue types working together to provide a
specific function
organs systems
different organs working together to accomplish a common goal
organism
complete living thing
species
group of similarly constructed organisms capable of interbreeding and
producing fertile offspring
population
all member of the same species occupying a given location
ecosystem
interactions between organisms and the living and nonliving
components of their environment
biosphere
region of the earth capable of supporting life
homeostasis
maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment no matter
what is going on outside
metabolism
all of the chemical reactions occurring in the body necessary to
sustain life
growth
increase in # of cells or size of organisms
development
changes in state of cells, tissues, organs and organisms
results in organisms with a defined set of characteristics
reproduction
necessary for the propagation of species
evolve
change sin allele frequencies in populations of organisms over time.
may result in adaption to environment
respond to stimuli
organisms respond to environmental changes
necessary for survival
classification
between 10 and 100 million different species on earth newly
discovered species are placed in groups taxon.
taxonomy
science of id, description, naming of species on earth
individuals placed into progressively smaller groups of organisms
emphasizes the diversity & unity of different species
domains of life
all forms can be placed into 3 large groups : domain introduced by
carl woes in 1977
bacteria
most primitive organisms on earth
fossils dated to 3.5 billion years ago.
most are unicellular prokaryotic
pro= before
kayrote= nucleus
archaea
unicellular prokaryotes
many are in extreme environments
extremeophites
high salinity
extreme temps low ph
eukarya
dna closed with a nucleus
larger cells
possess membrane -bound organelles
protest-fungi -plants -animals
domain
kingdom
phylum
class
order
family
genus
species
Ex: genus species
homo sapiens
scientific name
binomial nomenclature
each species has a unique 2 part scientific name
combination of its genus and species
genus name capitalized species name not capitalized
both italicized or underlined
scientific method
a step wise structure procedure
followed to collect reliable info about the natural world
5 steps
what is science
observation, identification, experimental investigation, theoretical
explanation of natural phenomena
zoology
study of animals
botany
study of plants
ecology
study of animal interactions in their environment
microbiology
study of microorganisms
types of questions scientist anwser
casual questions
ulitmate goal of science t
to establish cause & effect
relationships
observation
observe an event occurring in natural world
hypothesis
plausible explanation for your observation
must be testable;involves input from various sources
experimentation
hypothesis is tested by experimentation
controlled experiment
test group
subjects in an experiment that are subjected to some type of
variation that does not occur for the control group
control group
subjects treated just like the test group except they are into
subjected to one particular variable
data analysis
mathematical data preferred unbiased
dependent variable plotted on y axis
independent variable plotted on x axis
statistical significance
possibility that results are due to chance or to some factor other
than the experimental variable probability value. if p is low results
as a statistical significance
not due to chance alone
standard error
tells how uncertain a particular value is represented by bars above
and below each data point
dependent variable
plotted on y axis
variable affected during an experiment
the results
independent variable
plotted x axis
variable that is manipulated during experiment
experimental variable; cause of change
organization
organisms maintain an internal order that is separated form the environment
molecules
2 or more atoms joined together
organelles
specialized structures in the cytoplasm of cells providing essential
cell functions
cells
smallest units of life
cation
positively charged ion
anion
negatively charged ion
electronegativity
ability of atoms to attract electrons in a bond with another atom
ionic bond (chemical)
atoms donate or accept electrons to satisfy the octet rule
ion: charged atom
attraction forms ionic bonds
ionic bonds form when a cation binds to an anion
atomic #
number of protons an atom contains
atomic mass
sum of # of protons and neutrons in an atoms
atoms
smallest unit of matter non divisible by normal chemical /physical means
proton
positively charged subatomic particle
neutron
subatomic particle with no charge
electron
subatomic particle with a negative charge
located in orbitals: regions around nucleus where electrons are
likely to be found
isotope
orbitals located in energy shells
isotope atoms of same element
molecules
2 or more atoms bonded together; atoms may be same or different element
compound atoms of 2 or more different elements bonded together
chemical bonds
energy relationship between electrons
valence electrons: electrons in outer most shell
atoms with unfilled outer electron tend to share, release, or
obtain electrons to fill it
allows for atoms to form chemical bonds
octet rule
atoms are most stable when they have 8 electrons in outermost energy shell
exceptions : if 1st shell is outer shell it can only hold 2 electrons
hydrogen and helium (1 shell)
theory
broad explanations of an aspect of natural world
substantiated by large body of evidence
must be testable
can not be proven to be true
describes things of which most certain
atomic symbol
shorthand method for representing an element
elements
pure chemical substance consisting of atoms same # of protons in
their nuclei ( 118 known as of 2011)
matter
anything that has mass and takes up space
ice floats
frozen water at 0 degrees is less dense than liquid water at 4 degree
Celsius so ice floats
high heat vaporation
takes 5 times as much energy to vaporize water than to raise it from
0 -100 degree Celsius
water
body weight
60-70% water
brain 70%
lungs 90%
bones 20%
solvent
h2o molecules are dipolar
orient around charged particles
chemical reactions necessary for life occurs in an aqueous medium
high surface tension
measure of the attraction between molecules at the surface of a liquid
hydrogen bonds
weak chemical attraction between a partial positively charged
hydrogen atom of one molecule and a partial negative charged atom of
another polar molecule
represented by dotted lines
individuality: easily broken
large # within molecule
polar covalent bonds
atoms share electrons unequally
partial charges develops on atoms
nonpolar covalent bonds
atoms share electrons equally
no partial changes develop on atoms
proteins
composed of 20 commonly occuring amino acids
amino acids
monomer ( building blocks)
polypeptide
mulitple amino acids joined together
functions of proteins
structural elements
transport of molecules and ions
enzymes
defense of the body
cells signaling gene expression
and regaulation
acid
release hydrogen ions in solutions ( H+)
base
release hydroxide ions ( oh-) in solution
ph
measure of the concentration h+ in solution
ph of a solution can affect shapes and functions of molecules
chemical reaction rates ability of molecules to bind together
ability of ions/molecules
adhesion
water molecules will adhere to charged surfaces
if ph of blood is low
path way left to right
if ph of the blood is high
pathway right to left
salt
compounds formed from an attraction between a cation and an anion
buffer
composed of a weak acid and its related base
prevent sudden changes in ph of solutions
ex: ph of blood 7.45
organic molecules
composed of carbon atoms in the form of chains or rings and also
contain hydrogen
why life is carbon based
can form bonds w/ many other atoms
can form strong stable bonds with other carbon atoms
distance between c atoms is short
shorter bonds more stable than longer bonds
c-c bonds stable over ranger of t0 associated with living things
monomer
building block
4 organic molecules of life
carbohydrates
proteins
lipids
nucleic acids
carbohydrates
starch and sugar
function of carbohydrates
energy souces
structural elements
recognition sites on membrane surfaces
conatin c, h and o in a ration ic;2h;1o
monosaccarides
ose -sugar
simple sugars
(backbone of 3-7 atoms)
most common : hexose sugars ( 6c atoms) pentose ( 5 c atoms)
ex: glucose
frutose
galactose
glucose
source of quick energy in animals
fructose
fruit sugar
disaccardies
polymers of monnosaccarides
2 monosaccarides joined together
sucrose : glucose + frutose
lactose: glucose+ galactose
maltose: glucose + glucose
Ex: sucrose, lactose, maltose
polysaccahrides
long chain of monosaccharides
glycogen and starch are branched polymers of glucose
both are soluble in water
galactucide bond
Ex: glycogen, cellulose, starch
glycogen
primary storage of glucose in animals
cellulose
primary storage form of unbranched polymer of glucose soluble in water
levels of protein organization
primary
secondary
tetiary
quaternary
protein organization
primary
linear sequence of amino acids
protein organization
secondary
folding of the primary structure
protein organization
tetiary
three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide
protein organization
quaternary
association of multiple polypeptides
lipids
fats and fat like substances; will not dissolve in water
functions of lipids
primary component of biological membranes
hormones
energy sources
body contour
insulation
triglycerides
composed of glycerol and 3 fatty acids
burn as fuel molecules to help meet long term energy needs
adipose tissue: insulation, body contour
four types
saturated
unsaturated
cis
trans
saturated
( butter)
each fatty acid is attached 2 hydrogen atoms
solid at room temp
butter, lard, margerine
unsaturated
hydrogenated oils
double bonds between some carbon atoms in fatty acid
tend to be liquid at room temp
corn oil, sunflower oil
cis fats
most common naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids (oils)
trans fat
artificially created by adding hydrogen atoms to vegetable oil
phospholipids
primary component of membranes
resemble triglycerides with one fatty acid replaced by a phosphate group
phosphate group is charged: head ( polar)
reminder of a molecule is not charged: tail ( non polar)
steriods
Alcohols with fat like properties composed of 4 fused carbon rings
nucleic acids
composed of nucleotides: 5 carbon sugar, a phosphate group, nitrogen
-containing base
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid
stores and encodes the instructions
RNA
ribose nucleic acid
carries info from dna
cells
all living things are composed of cells
the cell is the basic unit of life
all cells arise from preexisting cells
prokaryotic cells
bacteria archaea
eukaryotic
protist
fungi
plants
animals
organelle
compartment-ed region of the cytoplasm where specific reactions occur
plasma membrane
strorage of genetic info ( DNA)
usually large : 10 -20 5 of cell volume
nucleus
chromatin
nuclear envelope
nuclear pores
nucleolus
chromatin
dna + protein
when condensed called chromosomes
nuclear envelope
double membrane
defines boundaries of nucleus
parts of endomembrane system
nuclear pores
allow molecules to pass into/ out of nucleus
nucleolus
ribosomal components made here
endoplasmic reticulum
rough er
smooth er
rough er
system of membranes
studded with ribosomes ( protein synthesis)
functions of rough er
protein synthesis
attachment of sugar to proteins and lipids
glycosylation
smooth er
continuous with rough er
lacks ribosomes
functions of smooth er
lipid synthesis
detoxification
golgi apparatus
stack of membranes
recieves material form er
function of golgi apparatus
sorts, modifies, and packages er products
vesicle formation
vesicle
membrane bound sac
FUNCTION: storage; transport; detoxification; digestion
lysosome
peroxisome
lysosome
digest worn out cell parts, pathogens and debris
contain hydrolic enzymes
peroxisome
detoxification of harmful subastances
cytoskeleton
microtubules
intermediate flaments
actin filaments
microtubles
long, hollow cylindrical structures
composed of protein tublin
maintain cell shape, movement of organelles and chromosomes
intermediate filaments
mechanical strength
maintain cell shape
actin filaments
maintain cell shape
movement
mitochondrion
site atp synthesis
double membrane
self replicating
mitochondrial
dna
centriole
composed of micro tubules
separation of chromosomes during cell division
flagella
composed of micro tubules
usually long and singular
movement of entire cell ( requires atp)
cilia
composed of microtubules
usually short and multiple
in humans
on free cell surface
movement material across cells
membrane transport
the plasma membrane is selectively permeable
it is composed primarily of phospholipids and proteins
the phospholipids impart the fluidity to the membrane
some molecules can cross the plasma membrane with relative ease
wihile others require assistance
transport mechanisms
diffusion
random movement of molecules from a higher to a lower
no energy required
molecules that can diffuse across biological membranes
small uncharged molecules
water molecules
lipid soluble molecules
gases, alcohol
osmosis
tonicity
solute
solvent
tonicity
the ability of a liquid to change the shape of a cell by altering the
water content
solute
a substance that is dissolved in a solution
solvent the substance in which the solute is dissolved
solvent
the substance in which the solute is dissolved
hypertonic solution
higher solute and lower h2o than cells
h20 leaves cells shriveled
sea water
hypotonic solution
lower solute and higher h20 than cells
h20 enters cells
cells swells and may burst
distilled water
isotonic solution
same solute and h20 as cells
no net movement of h20 cell shape not altered
facilitated transport
transport of molecules requiring a carrier protein molecules moved
from higher to lower
no energy required
ex: glucose
active transport
movement of molecules from lower to higher
requires carrier protein
requires energy atp
endocytosis
transports molecules or cells into the cell plasma membrane
invaginates arousal material vesicle forms and is incorporated into cell
exocytosis
transports molecules or cells into the cell vesicle containing
molecules fuse with plasma membrane
vesicle opens releasing contents out of cell
adhering junctions
join plasma membrane of adjacent cells together
cytoskeletal elements extend form one cell to the next
anchor cells together
common in skin cells
zonula adherens
desmosome
zonula adherens
wrap around periphery of cells
desmosome
small circular complexes
occluding junctions
prevent material from passing between adjacent cells
forms a seal between cells
zip cells together
common in kidney
zonula occludens
zonula occludens
wrap around periphery of cells
communicating junctions
allows molecules, ions to pass from cell to cell
gap junction
gap junction
from open channels between cells to allow movement of substances
tissues
group of similar cells working together to perform a specific function
4 basic types of tissue
epithelial
connective
muscle
nervous
epithelial tissue
2 categories
epithelium / glandular epithelium
epithelium
covers body surfaces /lines body cavaties
FUNCTION : secretion, absorbtion,protection
classification by cell shape
squamous
extremely flat cells
classification by cell shape
cuboidal
cells as tall as they are wide
classification by cell shape
columnar
cells taller than they are wide
nephron filters
blood
classification by number of cell layers
simple
single layer of cells
classification by number of cell layers
stratified
2 or more layers of cells
ex:
esophagus
glandular epithelium
derived from epithelium
endocrine glands
no ducts too transport secretion
secretions transported by blood
exocrine glands
ducts to transport secretions
connective tissue
functions
binds tissues /structures together
protection
support
insulation of body
transport of vital material ( blood)
connective tissue cells
fibroblasts
most common
secretes fibers and matrix
connective tissue cells
macrophages
phagocytes
connective tissue cells
plasma cells
secrete anitbodies
connective tissue cells
leukocytes
provide protection from disease causing agents
white blood cells
defense system
connective tissue fibers
collagen fibers
great tensile strength
allows muscles to resist
connective tissue fibers
elastic fibers
can be stretched to 150% of original length without breaking
connective tissue fibers
reticular fibers
a type of collagen fiber
extracellular matrix
acellular substance with gel-like consistency
prevents invasion by bacteria
glycosamingolycans ( Gags)
proteoglycans
attract h20 molecules allows water soluble materials to diffuse through
connective tissue types
loose
dense
andipose
cartilage 3
hyaline
elastic
fibrocartilage
bone
blood
most common type
hyaline
muscle tissue
specialized for contraction
skeletal tissue
most associated with the skeleton
cardiac tissue
found in the myocardium of the heart
smooth tissue
found in the walls of organs and glands
neuron
only cell in nervous system capable of concluding nerve impulses
structural and functional unit of nervous system
glial cells
provide support for the neurons
integumentary system
composed of two layers: epidermis and dermis
function of integumentary system
protection
prevention of water loss
regulation of body temperature
excretion of waste products
synthesis of vitamin d
sensory reception
epidermis
outer layer of skin composed of epithelial tissue
cells of the epidermis
keratinocytes
most common cell typer
produce keratin; water proofing protein
5 zones in beginning with the innermost layer moving toward skin surface
5 zones in beginning with the innermost layer moving toward skin surface
stratum basale- inner most cell- living
stratum spinosum -ce;ll is living
stratum granulosum - 3 mixture of live and dead cells
statum lucidum-cells dead
stratum corneum -cells dead
langergans cells
scattered in the layers keratinocytes
defensive cells
protection form disease -causing agents
merkel cells
scattered in the layers of keratinocytes
function as touch receptors
melanocytes
scattered in the keratinocytes
produce melanin
dermis
inner most layer of skin
highly vasculized
contains sensory structures
lymph vessels , nerve and glands
sensory structures
meissners corpuscles
light touch receptors
highly concentrated in fingertips
sensory structures
pacinian corpuscles
detect deep pressure and vibrations
sensory structure
krause end bulbs
hypodermis- not a layer of skin
below dermis
thick layer of andipose tissue(fat)
provides insulation and contributes to body contour
glands
eccrine sweat glands
2.5 million in body
function in temperature regulation
produce sweat
apocrine sweat glands
functions in humans
no rule in temperature regulation
sebaceous glands
all regions of body except fo rpalms and soles
large on face, neck, and upper chest
produce sebum; lubricates skin and hair; cloggs ducts iwth bacterial
invasion -acne
blood vessels
60,000 miles of blood vessels in human body circumference of earth;
25, 000 miles
categories
arteries
conduct blood away form the heart
high pressure vessels
compostion of wall: 3 layers thin inner epithelium
elastic arteries
largest arteries
extensive layers of elastic fibers in wall
ex: aorta
muscular arteries
most arteries fall into this category
medium sized arteries
arterioles
small arteries that help regulate blood pressure
capillaries
blood vessels that function to serve sites of exchange of materials
between the blood and connective tissue /cells
walls is only 1 cell thick
microscopic vessels between arterioles and venules
capillary bed
networks of capillaries where change of materials between blood and
body cells occur
veins
conduct blood back to the heart
low pressure vessels
thin connective tissue layer
3 layers
thin inner epithelium
thin smooth muscle layer
venules
small veins that retrieve blood from capillaries
valves
extensions of the lining that prevent blood from flowing backward
present in some veins
varicose veins
extensions for the lining that prevent blood from flowing backward
superficial distended
heart
4 chambers
no mixing of oxygenated deoxygenated blood
human heart size of your fist
chambers of the heart
the right and left sides of the mammalian heart are seperated by
tissue called septum
the heart is composed of four chambers : two atria two ventricles
atria
upper
thin walled chambers
ventricles
lower
thick walled chambers
the myocardium of the left ventricle is thicker than that of the
right ventricle
atrioventricular (av) valves
prevents blood backflow into atria when ventricles contract
tricuspid valve: right av valve
bicuspid valve: left av valve
chordae tendinae
anchor av valve cuspin ventricle
pathway of blood through the heart
superior and inferior vena cavae
right atrium
tricuspid valve
right ventricle
pulmonary semilunar valve
pulmonary trunk -artery
pulmonary arteries
pulmonary capillaries
lungs
pulmonary veins
left atrium
bicuspid valve
left ventricel
aoritc semilunar valve
aorta
superior and inferior vena cavae
largest vein in body
conduct deoxygenated blood to heart
pulmonary semilunar valve
between rt. ventricel adn pulmonary trunk prevents backflow of blood
when rt. ventricle relaxes
pulmonary trunk
blood to lungs ( deoxygenated)
lungs
blood is oxygenated
bicuspid valve
left av valve ( mitral valve)
left ventricle
prevent backflow of blood
aortic semilunar valve
between left v. and aorta
prevents back flow of blood when left ventricle relaxes
aorta
largest artery in body
conduct oxygenated blood to all regions of the body except lungs
pulmonary circuit
blood flow form right ventricle to the lungs and back to the left atrium
systemic circuit
blood flow from the left ventricle to the aorta and through the body
( even the all of the heart) and back to the left atrium
coronary circulation
blood vessels that serve the wall of the heart
part of the systemic circulation
cardiac cycle
sequence of events that occurs when the heart beats
one heart beat
diastole
systole
stage 1,2,3
diastole
relaxation of the heart chambers
systole
contraction of the heart chambers
stage 1 of cardiac cycle
atria in systole
ventricles in diastole
relaxing
stage two in cardiac cycle
atria in diastole
ventricles in systole
stage 3 of cardiac cycle
atria in diastole
ventricles in diastole
heart sounds
when heart valves close; vibrations generated
first heart sound
produced by the closure of the atrioventricular valves
lub loudest sound
second heart sound
produced by the closure of the semilunar valves
dub
nodal tissue of the heart
regions specialized cardiac muscle fibers
generate impulses that travel through heart and cause heart to contract
sa node
sinoatrial node
pacemaker of of the heart
sets the heartbeat rate
located in the right atrium
causes atria to connect
intiates atria contraction when a sa node depolarized
av node ( atrioventricular node)
located in right atrium
delays relay of impulse to the ventricles for 1/10th of a second
allows atria to emtpy
branches of the atrioventricular node
located in the septum - tissue that separates left and right side
conducted impulses to ventricles
purkinje fibers
loacated in wall of ventricles
conduct signals for ventricles to contract
systolic pressure
highest blood pressure recorded in the artery
diastolic pressure
lowest blood pressure recorded in the artrey
aneurysm
ballooning of a blood vessel
anthenosclerosis& hypertension
can weaken a vessel and cause ballooning
abdominal artery or the arteries leading to the brain most commonly affected
atherosclerosis
boiled up plague in blood vessels
if plague is stationary : called athrombus
if plague detached and moves : called and embolus
associated with stroke , heart attack , and aneurysim
stroke
also called a cerebrovascular accident (cva)
usually occurs when a craniel artery is blocked or busrts
part of the brain dies due to lack of oxygen
symptoms; numbness of hands/face sudden weakness, confusion ,
difficulty speaking `
transport
oxygen , nutrients, wastes, c02. hormones
defense
against invasion by pathogens
temperature regulation
blood is fluid connective tissue
must have mechanism for stopping blood loss when vessels are damaged
plasma
fluid portion of the blood
accounts for 55% of the total blood volume
compostion of blood
water
molecules /ions are dissolved or suspended in water
acts as vehicel for transportation
91% of plasma
plasma proteins
albumins
transports molecules in the blood. maintains osmostic pressure of blood
globulins
fibrinogen
globulin
participates in defense against pathogens
transports of molecules
fibrinogen
involved in blood clotting
other compostion of blood
ions, nutrients, hormons, wastes
erthrocytes
red blood cells
transports 02 form lungs to cells
loose nuclei and other organelles before entering circulation
life span 120 days
appearance: bio concave disk
erythropoitein
hormone that simulates rbc production in red bone marrow when oxygen
levels are low
old rbc cells are destroyed by liver or spleen
hemoglobin
4 polypeptide chains bound to fe-containing group
280 million in each rbc
bind to and transport o2
sickle cell disease
hereditatry condition
abnormal hb
rbc assume a sickle shape
fragile cells
rupture passing through capillaries
90 days rbs live
leukocytes
white blood cells
7,000 per mm of blood
provide protection against disease causing agents
must exit blood and enter the connective tissues to perform
biological functions
diapedisis
derived form red bone marrow
some live for only days while other live for months or years
granulocytes
contain specific granules in cytoplasm that assist is cell function
nuclei lobed
agranulocytes
no specific granules in cytoplasm
nuclei not lobed
granulocytes
neutrophilis
small salmon colored granules
most common leukocyte
nucleus 2-5 lobes
phagocytes : engulf bacteria
life span few hours -several days
granulocytes
esoinphils
large red granules
nucleus bilobed
protection form parasitic worm
reduced inflammation: engulf antigen- antibody complexes life span :
< 2 weeks
granulocytes
basophils
large dark blue or purple granules
promote blood flow to damaged tissues
inflammatory response
specifics granules contain heparin anticoagulation histamine
dialtes blood vessels
agranulocytes
lymphocytes
b-lymphocytes
produced antibodies
protiens produced when foreign material detected in body
life span- many years
t-lymphocytes-target cancer cells and virus infected cells
agranulocytes
monocytes
called macrophages after entering connective tissues phagocytes that
engulf pathogens and cellular debris increase in number during chronic infections
megakaryocytes
large bone marrow cells that break apart and the fragments
(platelets) enter the circulating blood
200 million are made per day
function :
in blood clotting
plasma proteins
ingestion
intake of food
digestion
breakdown of food into sizes small enough to allow absorption by the
cells lining the GI tract
mechanical: chewing, contraction of stomach
chemical: enzymes
breaks down in order to absorb
absorption
uptake of digested food by cells lining the gi tract
small intestine: glucose amino acid mutl step process
movement
transport of food from one digestive organ to the next allow food to
be properly digested,absorbed or eliminated
elimination
removal of undigested and unabsorbed food
layers of the wall of digestive organs
muscosa
submucosa
muscularis
serosa
mucosa
inner layer, border the llumen
lined epithelium
absorbtion and secretion
contains : blood vessels, nerves, lympaticas glands
submucosa
connective tissue
contains blood vessels, nerves, lyphatics glands
muscularis
thick layer of smooth muscle
contraction moves food through gi tract
serosa
outer layer of organ
organ lies in abdominal cavity
thin layer
adventitia
teeth
shape determines function
22 decidous teeth
32 permanent teeth
incisor
bite off food
canines
tear and shred food
premolars
crush and grind food
salivary glands
secrete saliva
moisten /lubricate food to facilitate swallowing
dissolve food particles to facilitate taste
kill ingested bacteria
contains salivary amilayse
salivary amylase
begins chemical digestion carbohydrates
major saliviary glands
partoid glands
submandibular glands
sublingual glands
taste buds
sensory receptors
pharynx
region commonly referred to as the throat
conducts food
no digestion
no absorbtion
tonsils
aggregates of lymphoid tissue
contains white blood cells providing protection form pathogens in food/air
esophagus
conducts food from pharynx to stomach
no digestion
no absoorbtion
peristalisis
wave like
rhythmic muscular contractions that propel food forward through the
gi tract
what prevents food from entering the respritory pathways when you swallow
the bolus moves from the oral cavity to the pharynx and then to the esophagus
the esophagus is located behind the larynx ( conducts air in
respiratory system)
the opening to the larynx is called the glottis
overhanging the glottis is a flap like structure called the epiglottis
when you swallow
larynx moves up so that epiglottis covers glottis
soft palate moves back to cover opening to nasal cavities
stomach
most dilated region of gi tract
smooth muscle oriented in 3 directions
contracts and mixes food with digestive enzymes
chemical digestion of proteins begins
very little absorption occurs in stomach
bolus converted to chyme
chyme: partially digested , liquefied , acidic food
mucosa of stomach
rugae
temporary folds in the stomach lining
gastric pits
indentation in lining; lined by muscusecreting cells
gastric glands
open into pitts; cells secrete hcl and pepsinogen
gastric juice
secretions of digestive glands
pepsin
enzymes that begins chemical digestion of proteins
hcl
secreted by parietal cells
kills bacteria in ingested food
mixes with pepsinogen secreted by cheif cells
involves in conversation of pepsinogen to pepsin
mucus
coats and protects cells lining stomach
heartburn
backup of gastric juices into esophagus
hiatal hernia
protrusion of part of the stomach through diaphragm
haitus :opening in diaphragm where esophagus passes through
hernia : protrusion of organ somewhere it is not supposed to be
peptic ulcers
open sores in the stomach or small intestine
hellicobacter pylori
bacterium responsible for development of most ulcers
small intestine
90% of digested food is absorbed here
10 feet in length
chemical digestion of proteins and carbohydrates is completed
chemical digestion of lipids begins and is completed
small refers to diameter cmpared to the large intestine ...not length
regions of small intestine
duodenum
JEJUNUM
ILEUM
duodenum
food digestion completed here
jejunum
primary site of nutrient absorbtion
illuem
completes absorbtion
villi
finger like projections of mucosa
microvili
highly folded regions on the free surface of the plasma membrane of
cells lining the villi
ingested
carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
absorbed
monosaccharides
glycerol and fatty acids
amino acids
accessory digestive glands
these glands add secretions to the small intestine
food does not enter these glands
nasal cavity
air entering the nasal cavity is warmed
,moistened and filtered
pharynx
communicates with oral and nasal cavities
conducts food and air but not at the same time
larynx
contain vocal chords that are involved in sound production
trachea
wall supported with c shape cartilage supports to prevent collapse
due to pressure changes occurring in thoracic cavity during ventilation
bronchi
primary
conduct air filter moisten air
branch off of trachea
right left primary bronchus
secondary and tetiary bronchi
branch off primary bronchi- small plates of cartilage in wall; smooth
muscle between - diameter /wall width
smaller than primary bronchi
bronchioles
conduct filter moisten air
cartilage replaced by ring of smooth muscle
clara cells: detoxify harmful chemical in air
alveoli
gas exchange region of the lungs
alveolur wall is only one cell thick and composed of two different
cells types
type one of alveolar cells:
flat cells sites of gas exchange
type two of alveolar cells:
cubodial cells; secrete surfacant
surfacant
coats wall of alveolus and prevents collapse
prevents alveoli and lungs form collapsing
surface tensing
stick together
avleoli collapsed -
no gas exchange
pleurae
protects
double serous membrane enclosing the lungs
delicate and produces secretions
pareital pleurea
adheares to the wall of the thoracic cavity
adhere to each other
visceral pleurae
adheres to outer surface of lungs
due to surface tension
attached to external surface of lungs
lungs must follow
movement of the thoracic cavity during ventilation
thoracic cavity
formed by ribs, sternum, vertebral column, diaphragm
lungs adhere to
thoracic cavity by pleaurea
as thoracic cavity expands or relaxes
so does the lungs
volume down
pressue up
negative force of breathing
volume up
pressure down positive force of breathing
inhalation
ribcage moves up and outward and the diaphragm contracts and moves down
these movements increase the volume of thoracic cavity and the lungs
decreasing air pressure in the lungs
diaphragm relaxed
is domed up
exhalation
the ribcage moves back down and inward and the diaphragm relaxes and
domes back up
these movements decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity and lungs
and increase the air pressure
lung volume
are directly measured using spirometer
lung capacities are calculated form lung volumes
tidal volume
volume of air moved into and out of the lungs with each ventilation
inspiratory reserve volume
the volume of air that may be forcefully moved into the lungs above
tidal volume
expiratory reserve volume
the volume of air that my be forcfully moves out of the lungs above
the tidal volume
vital capacity
the maximum volume of air that can be moved into and out of the lungs
during one ventilation
sum of the tidal volume inspiratory reserve volume and experitroy
reserve volume
residual volume
the volume of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation
gas exchange
occuring between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries
oxygen
diffuses out of alveoli adn enters blood adn binds with hb in rbcs
carbon dioxide
diffuses out of pulmonary capillaries and enters alveoli
internal respiration
gas exchange occuring between the capillaries of the systemic
circulation and the cells
ventialtion controls
primary signal initiating each inhalation
high levels of c02 in blood which leads to high levels of h+ in the blood
medulla
initaites each inhalation
aortic bodies
responds primarily when o2 levels drop critically low
carotid bodies
respond prinarily when o2 levels rise high
pons
contains a center that limits each inspiration ( exhale )
klinefelter syndrom
involves sex chromosomes
genotypic males
extra x xxy
sterile
1/3 normal size
breast development
learnign dissabilites
jacobs syndrome
involves sex chromosomes
xyy
extra y
may learning disabilities
most function normally
tall
triple x syndrom
xxx
tall thin
may have menstrual problems
chromosomal nondisjunction
failure of the chromosomes to be seperated properly during gamete foramtion
poly poid plants
that are seedless are sterile
seedless fruits