monomer
The subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer.
macromolecule
A giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a condensation reaction. Polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids are macromolecules.
polymers
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together.
dehydration synthesis
A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule.
hydrolysis
A chemical process that lyses, or splits, molecules by the addition of water; an essential process in digestion.
Anabolism
Building larger molecules. (Anabolic steroids) Requires energy. Dehydration synthesis
Catabolism
Breaking down molecules. Releases energy. Hydrolysis
atom
The smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element.
molecule
Two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds.
element
Any substance that cannot be broken down to any other substance.
covalent bonds
A type of strong chemical bond in which two atoms share one pair of valence electrons.
Carbohydrates
A sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharides) or polymers (polysaccharides).
Polymers
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together.
Monosaccharides
The simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also known as simple sugars, the molecular formulas of monosaccharides are generally some multiple of CH2O.
Disaccharides
A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis.
Polysaccharides
A polymer of up to over a thousand monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions.
Cellulose
A structural polysaccharide of cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by b-1, 4-glycosidic linkages.
Glycogen
An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.
Lipids
One of a family of compounds, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that are insoluble in water.
Phospholipids
A molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes, having a polar, hydrophilic head and a nonpolar, hydrophobic tail.
Steroids
A type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four rings with various functional groups attached.
Cholesterol
A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids.
Proteins
A three-dimensional biological polymer constructed from a set of 20 different monomers called amino acids.
Amino acids
An organic molecule possessing both carboxyl and amino groups. Amino acids serve as the monomers of proteins.
monomers
The subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer.
peptide bonds
The covalent bond between two amino acid units, formed by a dehydration reaction.
polypeptide
A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
Nucleic acids
A polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. The two types are DNA and RNA.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
A double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins.
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
A type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis and as the genome of some viruses.
genes
A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).
proteins
A three-dimensional biological polymer constructed from a set of 20 different monomers called amino acids.
polymer
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together.
nucleotide
The building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group.
Fats (triacylglycerol)
A biological compound consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule.
Fatty acids
A long carbon chain carboxylic acid. Fatty acids vary in length and in the number and location of double bonds; three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form fat.
nonpolar
A type of covalent bond in which electrons are shared equally between two atoms of similar electronegativity.
hydrocarbon
An organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen.
potential energy
The energy stored by matter as a result of its location or spatial arrangement.
saturated fats
A fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that can attach to the carbon skeleton. Butter, lard. Solid at room temperature
unsaturated fats
A fatty acid possessing one or more double bonds between the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton. Liquid at room temperature
primary structure
The level of protein structure referring to the specific sequence of amino acids.
polypeptide
A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
secondary structure
The localized, repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bond formation between peptide linkages.
Alpha helix
A spiral shape constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific hydrogen-bonding structure.
tertiary structure
Irregular contortions of a protein molecule due to interactions of side chains involved in hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges.
quaternary structure
The particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide.
eukaryotic cell
A type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles, present in protists, plants, fungi, and animals; also called eukaryote.
messenger RNA (mRNA)
A type of RNA, synthesized from DNA, that attaches to ribosomes in the cytoplasm and specifies the primary structure of a protein.
ribosome
A cell organelle constructed in the nucleolus and functioning as the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm; consists of rRNA and protein molecules, which make up two subunits.
nucleotides
The building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group.
double helix
The form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent polynucleotide strands wound into a spiral shape.
hydrogen bonds
A type of weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule.
Explain how monomers are used to build polymers
Polymers are linked together with covalent bonds through dehydration synthesis.
List the four major classes of macromolecules
Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids
Compare condensation and hydrolysis
Condensation (dehydration) is when a water molecule is removed. The two monomers each contribute part of the water molecule that is removed; one gives (-OH) and the other gives (-H). This requires energy so it falls under Anabolism.
Hydrolysis is when a w
Explain how organic polymers contribute to biological diversity:
Polymers make up DNA and proteins, so any variation in polymers will vary DNA and proteins, as well.
Describe the distinguishing characteristics of carbohydrates and explain how they are classified:
Carbohydrates are both sugars and their polymers. They are classified into Monosaccharides, (single sugars) Disaccharides, (two monosaccharides joined by condensation) and Polysaccharides (polymers of many sugars)
Distinguish between monosaccharides and disaccharides:
Monosaccharides are simple (single) sugars and have molecular formulas that are multiples of CH2O. They have one carbonyl group and multiple hydroxyl groups. They can be either aldose or ketone sugars, depending on the location of the carbonyl group. Mono
How does the location of the carbonyl group in monosaccharides affect the sugar?
Depending on where the carbonyl group is located, it can be an aldose sugar (with carbonyl group on outside of skeleton) or a ketose sugar (with carbonyl group in the middle of skeleton)
Hexoses
Sugars that have six carbons. (Glucose, fructose)
Trioses
Three-carbon sugars
Pentoses
Five-carbon sugars
Identify a glycosidic linkage and describe how it is formed:
A glycosidic linkage is a covalent bond formed formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction. Sucrose is formed by the linking of glucose and fructose.
Describe the structure and function of polysaccharides:
Polysaccharides are macromolecules (polymers with a hundreds of monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages.) Every living thing uses polysaccharides for fuel or structure.
How are polysaccharides used for fuel?
Starch is used for plant storage. This is what we eat when we eat plants. Glycogen is what animals store in the liver and muscles. This is why athletes carbo-load: to have glycogen available where they need it.
How are polysaccharides used for structure?
Cellulose (fiber) makes up a plant's cell wall. Chitin makes up fungi, exoskeletons, thread, beaks.
Distinguish the difference in glycosidic linkages found in starch and cellulose and explain why the difference is biologically important:
Starch has linkages with alpha glucose monomers. Cellulose has linkages with beta glucose monomers, which make every other glucose monomers "upside down." This makes the formation straight and very strong. Humans enzymes don't recognize the beta linkage s
Explain what distinguishes lipids from other macromolecules:
These do not included polymers and they have little or no affinity for water. Consist of hydrocarbons. Highly varied in form and function.
Discribe the unique properties, building-block molecules, and biological important of fats:
Fats are constructed from glycerol and fatty acids.
What are the three important groups of lipids?
Fats, phospholipids, and steroids
Glycerol
An alcohol with 3 carbons, each bearing a hydroxyl group