Who is the "Father of Microbiology and Protozoology"?
Leeuwenhoek
Antoni van Leeuwenoek - 3
1. began making and using simple microscopes; 2. often made new microscope for each specimen; 3. examined water and visualized tiny animals, fungi, algae, and single-celled protozoa, animalcules and bacteria
what were organisms discovered by Leewenhoek called at end of 19th century?
microorganisms
Who developed taxonomic system?
Linnaeus
what is taxonomic system?
system naming plants and animals and grouping similar organisms together
what are the six categories of Leeuwenhoek's microorganisms?
fungi, protozoa, algae, bacteria, archaea, small animals
characteristics of fungi - 3
1. eukaryotic; 2. obtain food from other organisms; 3. possess cell walls
what are fungi composed of? - 2
molds and yeasts
characteristics of molds - 3
multicellular; have hyphae; reproduce by sexual and asexual spores
characteristics of yeasts - 3
unicellular; some reproduce asexually by budding; some produce sexual spores
what type of cells are protozoa?
single-celled eukaryotes (have membrane-bound nucleus)
how are protozoa similar to animals?
in nutrient needs and cellular structure
where do protozoa live?
in water or animal hosts
how do protozoa reproduce?
mostly asexual; some sexual
how do protozoa move?
pseudopodia, cilia, flagella
what are pseudopodia?
cell extensions that flow in the direction of travel
what are cilia?
numerous, short, hairlike protrusions that propel organisms through the environment
what are flagella?
extensions of a cell that are fewer, longer, and more whiplike than cilia
characteristics of algae - 3
unicellular or multicellular; photosynthetic; simple reproductive structures
how are algae categorized?
based on pigmentation, storage products and composition of cell wall
why are plantlike eukaryotic algae important?
1. important providers of oxygen; 2. serve as food for many marine animals; 3. make chemicals used in microbiological growth media
how are viruses seen? why?
only by using an electron microscope because they are so small
what is the smallest microbe?
virus
where are bacteria and archaea found/
everywhere there is sufficient moisture (in most communities and habitats); some are found in extreme environments
what type of cells are bacteria and archaea composed of?
unicellular; lacking nuclei (much smaller than eukaryotes)
how do bacteria and archaea reproduce?
asexually
what are the two types of bacteria and archaea?
bacteria and archaea
characteristics of bacteria cell walls?
cells walls contain peptidoglycan; some lack cell walls
characteristics of archaea cell walls?
cells walls composed of polymers other than peptidoglycan
are bacteria beneficial?
most are beneficial and MOST do not cause disease
for what 4 questions did scientists search answers during the Golden Age of Microbiology?
1. is spontaneous generation of microbial life possible; 2. what causes fermentation; 3. what causes disease; 4. how can we prevent infection and disease?
by what 3 processes did some philosophers in the in the past think living things arose?
1. asexual reproduction; 2. sexual reproduction; 3. from nonliving matter
what did Aristotle propose?
spontaneous generation
what is spontaneous generation?
living things can arise from nonliving matter
What did Redi's experiments reveal? - 3
1. When decaying meat was kept isolated from flies, maggots never developed; 2. meat exposed to flies was soon infested with maggots; 3. people began to doubt Aristotle's theory of spontaneous generation
what does the stody of the Golden Age of Microbiology include?
a look at the men who proposed or refuted the theory of spontaneous generation - Aristotle, Redi, Needham, Spallanzani, Pasteur
another word for spontaneous generation?
abiogenesis
who is the Father of Microbiology?
Pasteur
what remains the accepted sequence of study today?
scientific method
what did Pasteur and Buchner's study of fermentation lead to?
fields of industrial microbiology (biotechnology), biochemistry, and the study of metabolism
what did Koch, Pasteur and other prove?
that pathogens cause infectious diseases
what is the idea that pathogens cause infectious diseases referred to as?
germ theory of disease (Pasteur)
what is etiology?
the study of the causation of disease
what did Needham's studies reinforce?
the idea that animals could not arise spontanously, but microbes could
what did Spallanzani's experiments conclude? - 3
1. that Needham failed to heaat vials sufficiently to kill all microbes or had not sealed vials tightly enough; 2. that microorganisms exist in the air and can contaminate experiments; 3. that spontaneous generation of microorganisms does not occur
what did critics of Spallanzani's experiments say?
that sealed vials did not allow enough air for organisms to survive and that prolonged heat destroyed "life force
what did Pasteur's experiments reveal?
1. when "swan necked flasks" remained upright, no microbial growth appeared; 2. when the flask was tilted, dust from the bend in the neck seeped back into the flask and made the infusion cloudy with microbes within a day
what led to development of scientific method? how - 4?
debate over spontaneous generation -1. a group of observations led scientists to ask questions about something; 2. scientists generate hypothesis; 3. scientist designs and conducts experiment to test hypothesis; 4. based on observation of results of exper
what led to study of the cause of fermentation?
spoiled wine threatened livlihood of vintners, compelling them to fund research into how to promote production of alcohol but prevent spoilage by acid during fermentation
what were the beliefs about fermentation?
that air caused fermentation reactions or that living organisms caused fermentation
what did Koch's experiments include?
1. simple staining techniques; 2. first photomicrograph of bacteria; 3. first photomicrograph of bacteria in a diseased tissue; 4. techniques for estimating CFU/ml; 5. use of steam to sterilize media; 5. use of Petri dishes; 6. aseptic techniques; 7. bact
what are Koch's postulates?
the logical steps he followed to prove the cause of an infectious disease remain an important part of microbiology today - 1. suspected causative agent must be found in every case of the disease and be absent from healthy hosts; 2. the agent must be isola
Who is Christian Gram?
developed procedure of the Gram stain in 1870s - still used today
how is bacteria differentiated?
Gram-positive or Gram-negative
who's investigations are the foundation upon which infection control and epidemiology are built?
Semmelweis, Lister, Nightingale and Snow
what is epidemiology?
study of occurrence, distribution and spread of disease
where do nosocomial infections occur?
health care settings
what is immunology? who began its study?
1. the study of the body's defense agains specific pathogens; Jenner's use of cowpox-based vaccine for preventing smallbox
who significantly advanced the field of immunology?
Pasteur
what laid the foundation for chemotherapy?
Ehrlich's search for "magic bullets", chemicals that differentially kill microorganisms
what was first disease proven to be bacterial in origin?
Anthrax (Koch)
how can disease and infection be prevented?
1. hand washing (Semmelweis); 2. antiseptic technique (Lister); 3. nursing-reformed military hospitals in 19th century (Nightingale) 4. infection control and epidemiology (Snow); 4. vaccine, field of immunology (Jenner); 5. "magic bullets", field of chemo
what does microbiology in the modern age focus on?
answering questions regarding biochemistry; microbial genetics, molecular biology
what is biochemistry?
the study of metabolism
what is microbial genetics?
the study of inheritance in microorganisms
what is molecular biology?
investigation of cell function at the molecular level
what are microbes used for?
in biotechnology for manufacturing useful products (i.e. bioremediation are usage of microbes to detoxify polluted environment)
scientists have applied knowledge from basic research to answer questions in what?
recombinant DNA technology (genetic engineering) and gene therapy
what is environmental microbiology?
the study of microorganisms in their natural environment
1. what is serology? 2. who was responsible for it? 3. how?
1. the study of blood serum; 2. Von Behring and Kitasato; 3. existence of chemicals and in the blood that fight infection
what advancements in chemotherapy were made in the 1900s?
discovery of numerous substances such as penicillin and sulfa drugs that inhibit pathogens
how did the study of biochemistry begin?
with Pasteur's work on fermentation and Buchner's discovery of enzymes in yeast extract
what did Kluyver and van Niel do?
used microbes as model systems for biochemical reactions
what practical applications are related to biochemistry? - 4
1. design of herbicides and pesticides; 2. diagnosis of illnesses and monitoring of patients' responses to treatment; 3. treatment of metabolic diseases; 4. drug design
what did Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty determine?
genes are contained in molecules of DNA
what did Beadle and Tatum establish?
gene's activity is related to protein function
what did microbial genetics look into?
translation of genetic information into protein; rates and mechanisms of genetic mutation; control of genetic expression by cells
what did molecular biology look into?
cell function at the molecular level; genome sequencing; cat-scratch fever caused by unculturable organism
what did Pauling propose that gene sequences could do?
1. provide understanding of evolutionary relationships and processes; 2. establish taxonomic categories that reflect these relationships; 3. identify existence of microbes that have never been cultured
what did Woese determine?
cells belong to bacteria, archaea or eukaryotes
what is recombinant DNA technology responsible for?
1. genes in microbes, plants and animals manipulated for practical applications; 2. production of human blood-clotting factor by E. coli to aid hemophiliacs
what is gene therapy?
inserting a missing gene or repairing a defective one in humans by inserting desired gene into host cell
how are living bacteria, fungi and algae used in bioremediation?
to detoxify the polluted environment
which chemicals are recycled?
carbon, nitrogen, sulfur
who discovered penicillin?
Fleming
who discovered sulfa drugs?
Domagk