Performance equals?
Equals f (ability x motivation)
Ability
Is the persons natural talent, as well as learned competencies, for performing goal-related tasks
Needs
-Are deficiencies that a person experiences at a particular time
-They often act as energizers for behavior
-Ex. water, air, or food, friendship
Goal
Is a specific result that an individual wants to achieve
Factors Necessary for Arousing Employee Motivation
-Attracted to join the organization and encouraged to remain in it
-Allowed to perform the tasks for which they were hired
-Stimulated to beyond routine performance and become creative and innovative in their work
Motivation
Represents the forces acting on or within a person that cause the person to behave in a specific, goal-directed manner
Core Phases of the Motivational Process
1. Employee identifies needs
2. Employee searches for ways to satisfy these needs
3. Employee selects goal-directed behaviors
4. Employee performs
5. Employee receives either rewards or punishments
6. Employee reassesses need deficiencies
Needs Hierarchy Model
-Suggested that individuals have a complex set of exceptionally strong needs, that can be arranged in a hierarchy
-By Abraham H. Maslow
-Most widely recognized model of motivation
Maslow's Needs Hierarchy
Assumptions of Maslow's Needs Hierarchy
-A satisfied need ceases to motivate behavior
-Several needs affect a person's behavior at any one time
-Lower level needs must be satisfied before higher level needs are activated
-More ways to satisfy higher level needs than lower levels
Physiological Needs
-Are the desire for food, water, and shelter
-They are the lowest level in Maslow's hierarchy
Security Needs
-Are the desire for safety, stability, and the absence of pain, threat, or illness
-Second lowest level in Maslow's hierarchy
Affiliation Needs
-Are the desire for friendship, love and a feeling of belonging
-Ex. being involved in extracurricular activities
-A level in Maslow's hierarchy
Esteem Needs
-The desires for feelings of achievement, self-worth, and recognition or respect
-Ex. Leaders motivate employees by giving recognition of achievements
-A level in Maslow's hierarchy
Self-Actualization Needs
-Involve individuals realizing their full potential and becoming all that they can become
-Ex. Oprah Winfrey, Donald Trump
-A level in Maslow's hierarchy
Deficiency Needs
The three lowest categories of needs-physiological, security, and affiliation
Growth Needs
Esteem and self-actualization needs
Learned Needs Model
-Need for power
-Need for affiliation
-Need for achievement
-By David McClelland
Need for Power
-The desire to influence individuals and events
-Individuals who possess a strong power motive take action that affects the behaviors of others and has a strong emotional appeal
-Learned needs model
Name the Two Types of Power
1. Institutional power: directed toward organization
2. Personal power: directed toward the self
Need for Affiliation
-The desire to be liked and stay on good terms with others
-Individuals with strong affiliation motive tend to establish, maintain, and restore close relationships with others
-Learned needs model
Need for Achievement
-Behavior toward competition with a standard of excellence
-Individuals with high need for achievement want to do things better and more efficiently than other have done before
-Ex. Shaun White (snowboarder/Olympics)
Characteristics of High Achievers
-They set their own goals
-Exercise self-control over their own behaviors
-Avoid setting goals that can be reached only by luck or chance
-Seek jobs that provide immediate feedback
Achievement Motivation Model
-States that individuals are motivated according to the strength of their desire either to perform in terms of a standard of excellence or to succeed in competitive situations
-According to McClelland, almost all individuals believe that they have an "ach
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
-Uses unstructured pictures that may arouse many kinds of reactions in the person being tested
-Ex. inkblot that a person can perceive as many different objects
-Ex. a picture that can generate a variety of stories
Motivator-Hygiene Model
-Which proposes that two sets of factors: motivators and hygienes are the primary causes of job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction
-Motivator factors are intrinsic to the job and lead to job satisfaction
-Hygiene factors are extrinsic to the job and can
Motivator Factors
-Include the work itself, recognition, advancement, and responsibility
-Intrinsic to the job
-Internal to the individual
-Motivator-hygiene model
Intrinsic Factors
Which are directly related to the job and are largely internal to the individual
Hygiene Factors
-Company policy and administration
-Technical supervision
-Salary
-Working conditions
-Interpersonal relations
-Extrinsic to the job
Extrinsic Factors
Factors that are external to the job
Core Job Characteristics
-Skill variety
-Task identity
-Task significance
-Autonomy
-Job feedback
-Job Characteristics Enrichment Model
Critical Psychological States
-Experienced meaningfulness of the work
-Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work
-Knowledge of the actual results of the work
-Job Characteristics Enrichment Model
Personal and Work Outcomes
-High internal motivation
-High quality work performance
-High satisfaction with the work
-Low absenteeism and turnover
-Job Characteristics Enrichment Model
Skill Variety
-The extent to which a job requires a variety of employee competencies to carry out the work
-Job Characteristics Enrichment Model
Task Identity
-The extent to which a job requires an employee to complete a whole and identifiable piece of work, that is, doing a task from beginning to end with a visible outcome
-Job Characteristics Enrichment Model
Task Significance
-The extent to which an employee perceives the job as having a substantial impact on the lives of other individuals, whether those individuals are within or outside the organization
-Job Characteristics Enrichment Model
Autonomy
-The extent to which the job provides empowerment and discretion to an employee in scheduling tasks and in determining procedures to be used in carrying out those tasks
-Job Characteristics Enrichment Model
Job Feedback
-The extent to which carrying out job-related tasks provides direct and clear information about the effectiveness of an employee's performance
-Job Characteristics Enrichment Model
Job Characteristics Model
-Individuals with high growth need strength are attracted to enriched jobs
-Leaders can vertically load a job to empower employees
-Employees with enriched jobs are less likely to be absent and leave company
Individual Differences
-Knowledge and skill
-Growth-need strength
-Satisfaction with contextual factors
-Job Characteristics Enrichment Model
Growth-Need Strength
-The extent to which an individual desires the opportunity for self-direction, learning, and personal achievement
-Individual Differences
-Job Characteristics Enrichment Model
Contextual Factors
-Include cultural values, organizational policies and administraction, technical supervision, salary and benefit programs, interpersonal relations, travel requirements, and work conditions
-Ex. Lighting, heat, safety hazards
-Individual Differences
-Job C
Assumptions of the Expectancy Model
-A combination of forces determines behavior
-Individuals decide their own behaviors in organizations
-Different individuals have different needs and goals and want different rewards
-Individuals decide among alternatives based on their perceptions
Expectancy Model
States that individuals are motivated to work when they believe that they can achieve things they want from their jobs
Key Variables in the Expectancy Model
-First-level outcomes
-Second-level outcomes
-Expectancy
-Instrumentally
-Valence
First-Level Outcomes
-Results of doing the job
-Ex. include level of performance, quality of work
-Key Variables in the Expectancy Model
Second-Level Outcomes
-Positive or negative events produced by the first-level outcomes
-Ex. pay increase, promotion, acceptance by coworkers, job security, and dismissal
-Key Variables in the Expectancy Model
Expectancy
-Effort performance belief
-Ex. if you believe that you have no chance of getting a good grade on the next exam by studying this chapter, your expectancy value would be a 0
-Key Variables in the Expectancy Model
Instrumentality
-Is the relationship between first-level outcomes and second-level outcomes
-Key Variables in the Expectancy Model
Valence
-Is an individuals preference for a particular second-level outcome
-Key Variables in the Expectancy Model
First-Level Outcomes Example
-Effort: attend class, study, take notes, prepare for exams
-Performance grade in class: A, B, C, D, F
-This is Expectancy
-Expectancy Model in Action
Second-Level Outcomes Example
-Self-confidence
-Self-esteem
-Personal happiness
-Overall GPA
-Approval of others
-Respect of others
-This is Instrumentality
-Expectancy Model in Action
Potential Problem of the Expectancy Model
-Accurate measurement of effort is difficult
-Importance of second-level outcomes hard to determine
-Assumption that motivation is a conscious choice process
-Works best in cultures that emphasize internal attribution (ex. Canada, U.S., U.K.) rather than
General Equity Model
-People strive to balance inputs and outputs
-Motivation is achieved when people are treated equitably
-Individuals compare their inputs and outputs to similar others to assess equitable treatment
-Based on fairness
Inputs
-Represent what an individual contributes to an exchange
-General Equity Model
Outcomes
-Are what an individual receives from the exchange
-General Equity Model
Examples of Inputs in Organizations
-Age
-Attendance
-Interpersonal skills, communication skills
-Job effort (long hours)
-Level of education
-Past experience
-General Equity Model
Examples of Outcomes in Organizations
-Challenging job assignments
-Fringe benefits
-Job perquisites (parking space or office location)
-Job security
-Monotony
-Promotion
Inequity as a Motivation Process
-Individual perceives inequity
-Individual experiences tension
-Individual wants to reduce tension
-Individual takes action
Inequity
Causes tension within and among individuals
Ways to Reduce Tension Produced by Inequity
-Actually change inputs
-Actually change outcomes
-Mentally distort inputs or outcomes
-Leave organization or transfer to another department
-Change the reference group
-Distort others inputs or outcomes
Procedural Justice
-Emphasizes processes used to reach a decision
-Focuses on fairness of rules and procedures
-Fair procedures lead to high job satisfaction and performance
-Decision-making Using Equity Theory
Organizational Citizenship Behavior
-Emphasizes processes used to reach a decision
-Focuses on fairness of rules and procedures
-Fair procedures lead to high job satisfaction and performance
-Decision-making Using Equity Theory
Goals
Are future outcomes (results) that individuals and groups desire and strive to achieve
Goal Setting
Is the process of specifying desired outcomes toward which individuals, teams, departments, and organizations will strive and is intended to increase organizational efficiency and effectiveness
Motivational Aspects of Goal Setting
-Goals direct attention
-Goals regulate effort
-Goals increase persistence
-Goals foster strategies and action programs
Goals Direct Attention
They focus an employees attention on what is relevant an important
Goals Regulate Effort
Not only do goals direct our attention, they motivate us to act
Goals increase persistence
-Persistence represents the effort expended on a task over an extended period of time
-Persistent people find ways to overcome obstacles and avoid making excuses if they fail
Goals Foster Strategies and Action Programs
Goals encourage people to develop strategies and action programs that enable them to achieve their goals
SMART
-S= Specific
-M=Measurable
-A=Agreed-upon
-R=Realistic
-T=Timebound
Goal Difficulty
A goal should be challenging but not impossible to achieve
Goal Clarity
A goal must be clear and specific if it is to be useful in directing effort
Moderators in the Goal-Setting Model
-Ability
-Goal commitment
-Feedback
-Task complexity
Ability
-The capacity to respond to challenge
-Moderators in the Goal-Setting Model
Goal Commitment
-Determination to reach a goal
-Moderators in the Goal-Setting Model
Feedback
-Provides information on performance
-Moderators in the Goal-Setting Model
Task Complexity
-Simple versus complex tasks
-Moderators in the Goal-Setting Model
When is Goal Commitment Strong
-Public commitment to achieve the goal
-Strong need for achievement
-Belief in personal control
-Participates in setting the goal
-Positive outcomes depend on goal achievement
-Expects to be punished for not achieving goals
-Perceives equitable distributi
Mediators in the Goal-Setting Model
-Direction of attention: focuses on goal-directed behavior
-Effort: positively related to challenge
-Persistence: willingness to continue working at a task
-Task strategy: approach to tackling a task
Why does Goal Setting Work?
-Serves as a directive function
-Has an energizing function
-Affects persistence and action positively
-Commits people to behavior
Limitations to Goal Setting
-Employees lack competencies to perform at a high level
-When a considerable amount of learning is needed, successful goal setting takes longer
-When the goal-setting system rewards the wrong behavior, major problems can result
Stress
Is the excitement, feelings of anxiety, and/or physical tension that occurs when the demands placed on an individual are thought to exceed the person's ability to cope
What creates stress or the potential of stress?
Stressors
Fight-or-Flight Response
The biochemical and bodily changes that represent a natural reaction to an environmental stressor
What are the Influences on the Stress Experience?
-The person's perception of the situation
-The person's past experiences
-The presence or absence of social support
-Individual differences in reacting to stress
Work-Related Stressors
-Workload
-Job conditions
-Role conflict and ambiguity
-Career development
-Interpersonal relations
-Workplace aggression
-Conflict between work and life roles
Influenced by the Employee
-Perceptions
-Past experiences
-Social support
-Individual differences
Role Conflict
Refers to differing expectations of or demands on a person at work that become excessive
Role Ambiguity
Occurs when an employee is uncertain about assigned job duties and responsibilities
Workplace Incivility
Refers to rudeness, lack of regard for one another, and the violation of workplace norms for mutual respect
Examples of Effects of Severe Stress
-Physiological effects: increased blood pressure, increased heart rate, sweating, hot and cold spells
-Emotional effects: anger, anxiety, depression, lowered self-esteem
-Behavioral effects: poor performance, absenteeism, high accident rates, high turnove
Possible Effects of Severe Stress on Health
-Health problems: coronary heart disease, back pain, headaches
-Impact on the organization: increased health insurance costs and lost work days, over 75% of industrial accidents are rooted in stress
-Stress-related workers compensation claims
Job Burnout
Refers to the adverse efforts of working conditions under which strong stressors are perceived as unavoidable and relief from them is interpreted as unavailable
Depersonalization
-Is the treatment of people as objects
-Ex. a nurse might refer to the "broken knee" in room 405, rather than use the patients name, such as Ms. Wiley
People who are most vulnerable to Job Burnout include?
-Social workers
-Soldiers in war zones
-Nurses
-Police officers
-Teachers
Type A Personality
-Sense of urgency about time
-Competitive, almost hostile orientation
-Thinking about other things while talking to someone
-Impatience with barriers to task accomplishment
-Sense of guilt when relaxing or taking a vacation
Hardy Personality
-Sense of personal control
-Attribute one's own behavior to internal causes
-Commitment to their work and personal relationships
-Change or potential threats seen as challenges and opportunities for growth
Hardiness
Reduces the negative effects of stressful events
Stress Management
refers to the actions and initiatives that reduce stress by helping the individual understand the stress response, recognize stressors, and use coping techniques to minimize the negative impacts of severe experienced stress
Categories of Workplace Aggression
-Hostility
-Obstructionism
-Overt aggression
Hostile Attribution Bias
-The assumption that people tend to be motivated by the desire to harm others
-Self-Serving Biases Used to Justify Aggressive Behaviors
Potency Bias
-The assumption that interactions with others are contests to establish dominance versus submissiveness
-Self-Serving Biases Used to Justify Aggressive Behaviors
Retribution Bias
-Individuals think that taking revenge (retribution) is more important than preserving relationships
-Self-Serving Biases Used to Justify Aggressive Behaviors
Derogation of Target Bias
-Individuals see those they wish to make (or have made) targets of aggression's as evil, immoral, or untrustworthy
-Self-Serving Biases Used to Justify Aggressive Behaviors
Social Discounting Bias
-Individuals believe that social customs reflect free will and the opportunity to satisfy their own needs
-Self-Serving Biases Used to Justify Aggressive Behaviors
Workplace Bullying
-Is REPEATED and PERSISTENT negative actions toward one or more individuals that involve a power of imbalance and create a hostile work environment
-Women bullies target other women an overwhelming 84% of the time.
-Men bullies target women in 69% of the
Workplace Bullying Examples
-Flaunts status or authority, condescending
-Gives others the silent treatment
-Insulting, yelling, shouting, rage
-Verbal forms of sexual harassment
-Talks about others behind their back
Mobbing
The ganging up by coworkers, subordinates, or superiors to force someone out of the workplace through rumor, intimidation, humiliation, discrediting, and/or isolation
Sexual Harassment
Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature
Quick Pro Quo
Submission to harassment is used as the basis for employment decisions
Hostile Environment
Creates an offensive working environment
Examples of Actions for Stopping Sexual Harassment Actions
-Tell person the behavior is offensive orally and, if necessary, in writing
-Keep detailed record
-Tell an appropriate "higher level" person in writing
-Use the employer's procedures for sexual harassment
-Last resort: go legal
Workplace Violence
Is any act in which a person is abused, threatened, intimidated, or assaulted and that represents an explicit or implicit challenge to the person's safety, well-being or health at work
Harm Model
1. Harassment
2. Aggression
3. Rage
4. Mayhem
Warning Signs of Workplace Violence
-Violent threatening behavior
-"Strange" behavior
-Performance problems
-Interpersonal problems: expressions of resentment
-"At the end of his (or her) rope
Aggression Toward the Organization
-Ignore or be rude to customers
-Blaming customer problems on higher management
-Theft
-Damaging or destroying equipment and facilities
-Slacking off, reduced commitment
Harassment
-Ex. acting condescending way to a customer, slamming office door, glaring at a colleague
-The first level of the Harm Model
Aggression
-Ex. shouting at a customer, spreading damaging rumors about a coworker, damaging someone's personal belongings
-Second level of the Harm Model
Rage
-Ex. pushing a customer to sabotaging a coworkers presentation or leaving hate statements on someone's desk
-Third level of the Harm Model
Mayhem
-Ex. physically punching a coworker or superior to destroying a facility to shooting a coworker to death
-Fourth level of the Harm Model
Group
Is any number of people who share goals, often communicate with one another over a period of time, and are few enough so that each individual may communicate with all others, person to person
Team
Is a small number of employees with complementary competencies who are committed to common performance goals and working relationships for which they hold themselves mutually accountable
Team Empowerment
Refers to the degree to which its members perceive the group as
1. Being competent and able to accomplish work-related tasks (potency)
2. Performing important and valuable tasks (meaningfulness)
3. Having choice (autonomy) in how they carry out their task
Characteristics of Effective Teams
-Help each other
-Deal with conflict openly and constructively
-Diagnose its own processes and improve their own functioning
-Sense freedom to oneself
When to Use Teams
-Greater diversity of information, experience, and approaches are needed
-Acceptance of decisions is crucial for implementation
-Participation is important for reinforcing the values
-Team members need to rely on each other
Stages of Team Development
1. Forming
2. Storming
3. Norming
4. Performing
5. Adjourning
Forming Stage
-Team member often focus on defining goals and developing procedures for performing their jobs
-In this stage it involves getting acquainted and understanding leadership and other member roles
-First stage in Stages of Team Development
Storming Stage
-Is characterized by conflicts over work, relative priorities of goals, who is to be responsible for what, and the directions of the team leader
-Suppressing conflict will likely create bitterness and resentment, which will last long after team members at
Norming Stage
-In this stage members behaviors evolve into a sharing of information, accepting of different options, and attempting to make decisions that may require compromise
-At the beginning of this stage, the dominant view might be "We are in this together, like
Performing Stage
-By this stage members usually have come to trust and accept each other
-Members are willing to risk presenting "wild" ideas without the fear of being put down by the team
-Fourth stage in Stages of Team Development
Adjourning Stage
-The termination of task-related behaviors and disengagement from interpersonal behaviors occur during this stage
-This stage isn't always planned and may be rather abrupt
-Fifth stage in Stages of Team Development
Common Types of Work-Related Teams
-Functional team
-Problem-solving team
-Cross-functional team
-Self-managed team
-Virtual team
-Global team
Functional Team
-Usually includes employees who work together daily on similar tasks and must coordinate efforts
-These teams often exist within functional departments: marketing, purchasing, production, engineering
-Common Types of Work-Related Teams
Problem-Solving Team
-Is a team that has members who focus on a specific issue, develop a potential solution, and can often take action within defined limits
-These teams often address quality of cost problems
-Common Types of Work-Related Teams
Cross-Functional Teams
-Is a team that has members drawn from various work areas whose goal is to identify and solve mutual problems
-Common Types of Work-Related Teams
Self-Managed Team
-Refers to a team with highly interdependent members who work together effectively on a daily basis to manufacture an entire product (or major identifiable component) or provide an entire service to a set of customers
-Common Types of Work-Related Teams
Tasks that may be performed by Self-Managed Teams
-Work and vacation scheduling
-Rotation of job tasks and assignments among members
-Ordering materials
-Deciding on team leadership
-Setting key team goals
-Budgeting
-Hiring replacements for departing team members
-Sometimes evaluating each other's perfo
Virtual Team
-Refers to a team with members who collaborate through various information technologies on one or more tasks while geographically dispersed at two or more locations and who have minimal face-to-face interaction
-They need to keep the team as small as poss
Global Team
-Has members from a variety of countries who are separated significantly by TIME, DISTANCE, CULTURE, and LANGUAGE
-Common Types of Work-Related Teams
Context
Refers to the external conditions within which a team works
Informal Leader
Is an individual whose influence in a team grows over time and usually reflects a unique ability to help the team reach its goals
Team Goals
Are the outcomes desired for the team as a whole
Superordinate Goals
Which two more individuals, teams, or groups might pursue but cant be achieved without cooperation
Team Member Roles
1. Task-oriented role
2. Relations-oriented role
3. Self-oriented role
Task-Oriented Role
-Role of a team member involves facilitating and coordinating work related behaviors and decision making
-This role includes: Initiating new ideas, seeking info, giving info, coordinating relationships, evaluating teams effectiveness
-Team Member Roles
Relations-Oriented Role
-Role of a team member involves fostering team-centered attitudes, behaviors, emotions, and social interactions
-This role includes: encouraging members, harmonizing conflicts, encouraging participation expressing standards
-Team Member Roles
Self-Oriented Role
-Role of team member involves the person's self-centered attitudes, behaviors, and decisions that are at the expense of of the team or group
-This role includes: blocking progress by being negative, seeking recognition, dominating, avoiding involvement
-T
Fault Lines
The process by which teams divide themselves into subgroups based on one more attributes
Diversity and Stereotypical False Assumptions
-Diversity poses a threat
-Expressed discomfort
-Members of all groups want to become and should be more like the dominant group
-Attitudes involving stereotypical false assumptions about team diversity
-Equal treatment means the same treatment
Norms
Are the rules and patterns of behavior that are accepted and expected by members of a team or whole organization
Enforcing Norms
-Norms aid in team survival and provide benefits
-Norms simplify or make predictable the behaviors expected of members
-Norms help avoid embarrassing interpersonal situations
Compliance Conformity
Occurs when a person's behavior reflects the teams desired behavior because of real or imagined pressure
Personal Acceptance Conformity
The individuals behavior and attitudes are consistent with the teams norms and goals
Cohesiveness
Is the strength of the members desire to remain in a team and their commitment to it
Potential Team Dysfunctions
-Groupthink
-Free riding
-Bad apples effect
-Absence of trust
-Avoidance of accountability for results
Groupthink
-Is an agreement-at-any-cost mentality that results in ineffective group or team decision making and poor decisions
-Characteristics include:
-Illusion of invulnerability
- Collective rationalization
-Unquestioned belief
-Stereotypical views
-Direct press
Free rider
-Is an individual who obtains benefits from membership but does not contribute much to achieving the teams goals
-Also referred to as shirking, or social loafing
-Potential Team Dysfunctions
Sucker Effect
Which refers to one or more individuals in the team deciding to withhold effort int he belief that others (the free riders) are planning to withhold effort
Bad Apples Effect
-Refers to negative team or group members who withhold effort, express negative feelings and attitudes, and violate important team norms and behaviors