Personality
The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others
Sum total of ways"
(in relation to personality)
Typical cognitions, emotions, and behaviors
The "single trait" approach
When one trait is used to classify someone's personality
Ex. Self-monitoring, Machiavellianism
The "many trait" approach
When multiple traits are used to describe someone's personality
Ex. Allport & Odbert (1936) talkative, assertive, sociable, reserved, quiet
The "essential trait" approach
Take large number of dimensions and analyze the correlations between them to identify a smaller number of "factors"
Ex. The Big Five
The Big Five Traits
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extroversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism(Emotional Stability)
Openness
Think flexibly; open to new ideas and experiences
Conscientiousness
Responsible and achievement-oriented
Extroversion
Outgoing, sociable, energetic, assertive
Agreeableness
warm, friendly, cooperative, helpful
Neuroticism(Emotional stability)
Emotional control and security
What do we assume about personality?
Unique: your personality differentiates you from other people
Stable: your personality is consistent over time and across situations
Weak Situations
A situation where any behavior is considered appropriate; unstructured; ambiguous
Strong Situations
A situation that "pulls" for particular behaviors; there is an appropriate way to behave, interpret the situation; structured
Stable traits over course of relationship
Extroversion and openness
Why are extroversion and openness stable over the course of a relationship?
They are more resilient to contrary evidence
Unstable traits over course of relationship
Conscientiousness and agreeableness
If-then personality Signatures
A trait approach that looks at mean levels of personality variables averaged across situations because personality may be stable within situations not across situations
Personality traits
Enduring characteristics that describe an individual's behavior
Most common way of measuring personality
Self-report surveys
The Meyers Briggs Type Indicator(MBTI)
A personality test that taps 4 characteristics and classified people into 1 of 16 personality types
The Dark Triad
A constellation of negative personality traits
Ex. Machiavellianism, Narcissism, Psychopathy
Narcissism
the tendency to be arrogant, have a grandoise sense of self-importance, require excessive admiration and have a sense of entitlement
Psychopathy
the tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or remorse when actions cause harm
adaptive unconscious
personality laid down by our genes and early childhood experiences
Constructed Self
Conscious identity we create for ourselves with the choices we make
Affect
A broad range of feelings that people experience
Emotions
intense feelings directed at someone or something
Moods
less intense feelings than emotions that often arise without a specific event acting as a stimulus
Six basic emotions
Anger
Fear
Sadness
Happiness
Disgust
Surprise
Moral emotions
emotions that have moral implications because of our instant judgement of the situation that evokes them
Moral Disgust
Disgust we feel about the violation of norms
Positive Affect
a mood dimension that consists of specific, positive emotions such an excitement, self-assurance, and cheerfulness at the high end & boredom, sluggishness toward the low end
Negative Affect
a mood dimension that consists of emotions such as nervousness, stress, and anxiety at the high end and relaxation, tranquility, and poise at the low end
Positivity offset
the tendency of most individuals to experience a mildly positive mood at zero input (when nothing in particular is going on)
Sources of emotions and moods
Personality
Time of Day
Day of the week
Weather
Stress
Sleep
Exercise
Age
Sex
Emotional labor
employee's expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal reactions at work
Felt emotions
an individual's actual emotions
Displayed emotions
the emotions the organization requires workers to show and considers appropriate in a given a job
surface acting
hiding one's inner feelings and forging emotional expressions in response to display rules
Deep acting
trying to modify one's true inner feelings based on display rules
Emotional dissonance
inconsistencies between the emotions people feel and the emotions they project
Mindfulness
objectively and deliberately evaluating the emotional situation in the moment
Affective events theory
Proposes that employees react emotionally to things that happen to them at work, and this reaction influences their job performance and satisfaction
Emotional intelligence
the ability to detect and to manage emotional cues and information
Emotion regulation
the process of identifying and modifying felt emotions
Emotional Suppression
Ignoring an emotional response to a situation
Emotional contaigon
the process by which people's emotions are caused by the emotions of others
The fixed mindset
when you believe your qualities are carved in stone(all about proving yourself and your traits)
The growth mindset
based on belief that your basic qualities are things you can cultivate through your efforts(passion for stretching yourself and sticking to it even when it's bad)
Motivation
the processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal
Intensity
how hard a person tries
Persistence
how long a person can maintain effort
Hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of five needs, in which, as each need is satisfied, the next need becomes dominant
Physiological
Safety-Security
Social-belonginess
Esteem
Self-actualization
physiological needs
hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and other bodily needs
Safety-Security needs
security an protection from physical an emotional harm
Social-belonginess needs
affection,belonginess, acceptance, and friendship
Esteem needs
internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, achievement and external factors such as status, recognition, and attention
Self-Actualization Needs
drive to become what we are capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving our potential, and self-fulfillment
Two factor theory
(motivation-hygiene theory) a theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction (Herzberg)
McClelland's Theory of Needs
a theory that achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation
Need for Achievement(nAch)
Ned for power(nPow)
Need for Affiliation(nAff)
need for achievement (nAch)
the drive to excel, to achieve in relationship to a set of standards
Need for power (nPow)
the need to make others behave in a way in which they would not have behaved otherwise
Need for Affiliation(nAff)
the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
Self-Determination theory
a theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effect of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation
Cognitive evaluation theory
version of self-determination theory in which allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling
Self-concordance
the degree to which people's reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values
Goal-setting theory
a theory that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance
Personal factors that influence the goals-performance relationship
Goal commitment
Task characteristics
National characteristics
Promotion focus
a self regulation strategy that involves striving for goals through advancement and accomplishment
Prevention focus
a self-regulation strategy that involves striving fr goals by fulfilling duties and obligations
Management by objectives
a program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period and including feedback on goal progress
Self-efficacy theory
an individual's belief that he/she is capable of performing a task
Bandura's proposal to increase self-efficacy
Enactive mastery
Vicarious modeling
Verbal persuasion
Arousal
Enactive mastery
gaining relevant experience with the task or job
Vicarious modeling
becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task
Verbal persuasion
we become more confident when someone convinces us we have the necessary skills to be successful
Arousal
leads to an engaged state, "psychs" us up, makes us feel up to the task
Pygmalion effect
a form of self fulfilling prophecy in which believing something can make it true
Reinforcement theory
a theory that behavior is a function of its consequences
Operant conditioning theory
Argues that people learn to behave a certain way to either get something they want or avoid something they don't
Behaviorism
a theory that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner
Social-learning theory
the view that we can learn through both observation and direct experience
Equity theory
a theory that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then repsond to eliminate any inequities
Choices employees who perceive inequity make based on equity theory
Change inputs
Change outcomes
Distort perceptions of self
Distort perceptions of others
Choose a different referent
Leave the field
Organizational justice
an overall perception of what is fair in the workplace, composed of distributive, procedural, informational, and interpersonal justice
Procedural justice
the perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals
Informational justice
the degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations for decisions
Interpersonal justice
The degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect
Expectancy Theory
a theory that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends of the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcomes and the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual
Job engagement
the investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance
Extrinsic Motivation Theories
Operant conditioning, Expectancy theory, Equity theory
Intrinsic motivation theories
Self determination theory
Goal setting theory
Job Design
Reinforcement(Operant Conditioning)
Increase desirable behavior
Positive reinforcement
A behavior followed by a reward is likely to be repeated
Negative reinforcement
A behavior followed by the elimination of negative stimulus is likely to increase
Punishment
Decrease undesirable behavior
Positive punishment
A behavior followed by a negative stimulus is likely to decrease
Negative Punishment
A behavior followed by the elimination of a positive stimulus is likely to decrease
The effect of a continuous reinforcement schedule?
Fast acquisition
The effect of a partial reinforcement schedule?
Persistence
The effect of a short delay reinforcement schedule?
Fast Acquisition
The effect of a long delay reinforcement schedule?
Persistence
Shaping(Operant Conditioning)
Break down complex tasks into reinforceable parts
What is Operant Conditioning good for?
Behaviors that can be clearly identified, monitored, reinforced
Identifying unintentional reward structures
Motivation equation
Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
What is Expectancy theory good for?
Guide to motivate longer term, complex behaviors
Explain situation when a reward is present
individualistic culture
people tend toward self enhancement
Collectivist culture
people tend toward self diminishment
heredity
factors determined at conception; one's biological, physiological, and inherent psychological makeup
Core self evaluation
bottom line conclusions individuals have about their capabilities, competence, and worth as a person
Self-monitoring
a personality trait that measures an individual's ability to adjust his or her behavior to external situation factors
Proactive personality
people who identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs
Situation strength theory
a theory indicating that the way personality translates into behavior depends on the strength of the situation
Clarity(situation strength theory)
the degree to which cues about work duties and responsibilities are available and clear
Consistency
the extent to which individual's freedom to decide or act is limited by forces outside their control
Constraints
the extent to which individual's freedom to decide or act is limited by forces outside their control
Consequences
the degree to which decisions or actions have important implications for the organization or its numbers, clients, supplies...
Trait Activation Theory (TAT)
A theory that predicts that some situations, events or interventions activate a trait more than others (can see what jobs fit what personalities)
Values
basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence
Value system
hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual's values in terms of their intensity
Terminal values
desirable end states of existence; the goals a person would like to achieve during their lifetime
Instrumental values
preferable modes of behavior or mean's of achieving one's terminal values
Power distance(Hofstede's Framework)
national cultural attribute that describes the extent to which unequal distributions of power are accepted
Individualism(Hofstede's Framework)
the degree to which people prefer to act as individual's rather than members if a group and vaule individual rights above all else
Collectivism(Hofstede's Framework)
emphasizes a tight social framework in which people expect others in their group to look after and protect them
Masculinity(Hofstede's Framework)
the degree to which the culture fairs traditional masculine roles rather than treating men and women as equal
Femininity(Hofstede's Framework)
sees little difference between male and female roles in society and treats women as equal to men in all respects
Uncertainty Avoidance(Hofstede's Framework)
the degree to which people in a country prefer structured over unstructured situations
Long-term orientation(Hofstede's Framework)
society that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence
short-term orientation(Hofstede's Framework)
national culture attribute tat emphasizes the present and accepts change
Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE)
Similar to Hofstede's Framework but with two added dimensions:
Humane orientation
Performance orientation
Human orientation(GLOBE)
degree to which a society rewards an individual for being altruistic, generous, and kind to others
Performance orientation(GLOBE)
degree to which a society encourages and rewards group members for improvement and excellence
Job Design
the way the elements in a job are organized
Job characteristics model(JCM)
a model that proposes any job can be described in terms of five job dimensions
Skill Variety
the degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities
Task identity
the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work
Autonomy
the degree to which a job provides substantial freedom an discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedure to be used to carry it out
Task significance
the degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people
Feedback
the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear info about the effectiveness of their performance
Motivating Potential Score (MPS)
a predictive index that suggests the motivating potential in a job
(Skill Variety+Task Identity+Task Significance)/3 (Autonomy)(Feedback)
Job rotation
the periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another
Relational Job design
constructing jobs so employees see the positive difference they can make in the lives of others directly through their work
Flextime
Flexible work hours
Job Sharing
An arrangement that allows two or more individuals to split a traditional full time job
Telecommuting
working from home at least two days a week on computer that is linked to the employee's office
Employee involvement and participation(EIP)
a participative process that uses the input of employees to increase employee commitment to organizational success
Participative management
a process in which subordinates share a significant degree of decision making power with their immediate superiors
Representative Participation
a system in which workers participate in organizational decision making through a small group of representative employees(work councils, board representatives)
Variable Pay Program
a pay plan that bases a portion of an employee;s pay on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance
Piece Rate Pay
a pay plan in which workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed
Merit-based pay plan
based on performance appraisal ratings
Bonus
rewards employees for recent performance rather than historical performance
Profit-sharing plan
organization wide program that distributes compensation based on some established formula designed around a company's profitability
employee stock ownership plan
a company established benefits plan in which employees acquire stock, often at below-market prices as part of their benefits
Flexible Benefits
a benefits plan that allows each employee to put together a benefits package individually tailored to his/her needs and situation
Employee recognition program
a plan to encourage specific employee behaviors by formally appreciating specific employee contributions
Distributive justice
Perceived fairness of the amount an allocation of rewards among individuals
Personality-job fit theory
The effort to match job requirements with personality characteristics
person-organization fit
The degree to which a person's values, personality, goals, and other characteristics match those of the organization.
affect intensity
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Illusory correlation
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Attitudes
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Cognitive Component
the opinion or belief segment of an attitude
Affective component
The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude
Behavioral component
an intention to behave in a certain way towards someone or something
Cognitive dissonance
Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes
Job satisfaction
A positive feeling about one's job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics
Job involvement
The degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it, and considers performance important to their self-worth
Psychological empowerment
Employees' belief in the degree to which they affect their work environment, their competence, the meaningfulness of their job, and their perceived autonomy in their work
Organizational Commitment
The degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization
Perceived Organization Support(POS)
The degree to which employees believe an organization values their contribution and cares about well-being
Employee engagement
An individual's involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the work he/she does
Core Self-Evacuation (CSE)
Believing in one's inner worth and competence
Corporate Social Responsibility(CSR)
An organization's self regulated actions to benefit society or the environment beyond what is required by law
Exit
Dissatisfaction expressed through behavior directed toward leaving the organization
Voice
Dissatisfaction expressed through active and constructive attempts to improve conditions
Loyalty
Dissatisfaction expressed by passively waiting for conditions to improve
Neglect
Dissatisfaction expressed through allowing conditions to worsen
Counterproductive work behavior (CWB)
Intentional employee behavior that is contrary to the interests or the organization
Job embeddedness
The extent to which an employee's connections to the job and community result in an increased commitment to the organization
Surface-level diversity
Differences in easily perceived characteristics such as gender, race, ethnicity, age, or disability that do not necessarily reflect the ways people think or feel but that may activate certain stereotypes
Deep-level Diversity
Differences in values, personality, an work preferences that become progressively more important for determining similarity as people get to know one another better
Discrimiation
Noting of a difference between things; often we refer to unfair discrimination, which means making judgements about individual's based on stereotypes regarding their demographic groups
Stereotyping
Judging someone on the basis of one's perception of the group to which that person belongs
Stereotype threat
The degree to which we internally agree with the generally negative stereotyped perceptions of our groups
Biographical Characteristics
personal characteristics- such as age, race, gender, and length of tenure-- that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records. These characteristics are representative of surface-level diversity
Ability
An individual's capacity to perform the various tasks in a job
Intellectual Abilities
The capacity to mental activities--thinking, reasoning, and problem solving
General Mental Ability(GMA)
An overall factor of intelligence, as suggested by the positive correlations among specific intellectual ability dimensions
Physical Abilities
The capacity to do tasks that demand stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics
Positive diversity climate
In an organization, an environment of inclusiveness an an acceptance of diversity
Diversity management
The process and programs by which managers make everyone more aware of and sensitive to the needs and differences of others