personality
characteristics that describe an individual's behavior.
personality traits
characteristics that describe an individual's behavior in a large number of situations
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies Behavior
Big Five Model
A personality assessment model that taps five basic dimensions. extraversion, agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism.
extraversion
A personality describing someone who is sociable and assertive (confident and forceful )
agreeableness
A personality that describes someone who is good natured, cooperative, and trusting.
conscientiousness
A personality that describes someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized.
emotional stability
A personality that characterizes someone as calm, self-confident, and insecure.
openness to experience
A personality that characterizes someone in terms of imagination, sensitivity, and curiosity.
core self-evaluation
Bottom-line conclusions individuals have about their capabilities, competence, and worth as a person.
Machiavellianism
The degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means.
narcissism
The tendency to be arrogant, self-importance, require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement.
self-monitoring
where an individual's has ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors.
proactive personality
People who identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs.
values
Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence.
value system
A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual's values in terms of their intensity.
terminal values
Values that we work towards (happiness, self-respect, family security, recognition)
instrumental values
Core values that are permanent in nature (honesty, sincerity, ambition, independence)
personality Job-fit theory
A theory that identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover.
power distance
where society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.
individualism
where people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups.
collectivism
A national culture attribute that describes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them.
masculinity
where culture favors traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power, and control.
femininity
indicates little differentiation between male and female roles; where women are treated as the equals of men in all aspects of the society.
uncertainty avoidance
A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them.
long-term orientation
A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence.
short-term orientation
A national culture attribute that emphasizes the past and present, respect for tradition, and fulfillment of social obligations. people value the here and now; they accept change more readily and don't see commitments as impediments to change.
heredity
factors determined at conception; one's biological, physiological, and inherent psychological makeup.
Perception
A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.
attribution theory
An attempt to determine whether an individual's behavior is internally or externally caused.
fundamental attribution error
The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others.
self-serving bias
The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors and put the blame for failures on external factors.
selective perception
The tendency to selectively interpret what one sees on the basis of one's interests, background, experience, and attitudes.
halo effect
The tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic.
contrast effect
Evaluation of a person's characteristics that is affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.
stereotyping
Judging someone on the basis of one's perception of the group to which that person belongs.
self-fulfilling prophecy
Causing something to happen by believing it will come true.
decisions
Choices made from among two or more alternatives.
problem
A discrepancy between the current state of affairs and some desired state.
rational
Characterized by making consistent, value-maximizing choices within specified constraints.
rational decision-making model
A decision-making model that describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome.
Steps in the rational decision-making model
1. Define the problem. 2. Identify the decision criteria. 3. Allocate weights to the criteria. 4. Develop the alternatives. 5. Evaluate the alternatives. 6. Select the best alternative.
bounded rationality
A less-than-perfect form of rationality in which decision makers cannot be perfectly rational because decisions are complex and complete information is unavailable or cannot be fully processed
intuitive decision making
An unconscious process created out of distilled experience.
anchoring bias
A tendency to fixate on initial information, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information.
confirmation bias
The tendency to seek out information that reaffirms past choices and to discount information that contradicts past judgments.
availability bias
The tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is readily available to them.
escalation of commitment
A human behavior pattern in which an individual or group facing increasingly negative outcomes from some decision, action, or investment nevertheless continues the same behavior rather than alter course.
randomness error
The tendency of individuals to believe that they can predict the outcome of random events.
risk aversion
The tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amount over a riskier outcome, even if the riskier outcome might have a higher expected payoff.
hindsight bias
The tendency to believe falsely, after an outcome of an event is actually known, that one would have accurately predicted that outcome.
utilitarianism
A system in which decisions are made to provide the greatest good for the greatest number.
whistle blowers
Individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders.
creativity
The ability to produce novel and useful ideas.
three-component model of creativity
The proposition that individual creativity requires expertise, creative thinking skills, and intrinsic task motivation.
Motivation
The processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
1. Physiological 2.Safety 3. Social 4. Esteem 5. Self-actualization
lower-order needs
Needs that are satisfied externally, such as physiological and safety needs.
self-actualization
The drive to become what a person is capable of becoming.
higher-order needs
Needs that are satisfied internally, such as social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.
Theory X
The assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibility, and must be coerced to perform
Theory Y
The assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction.
two-factor theory
Herzberg's theory describing factors that impact work satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
hygiene factors
Characteristics of the workplace, such as company policies, working conditions, pay, and supervision, that can make people satisfied or dissatisfied.
McClelland's theory of needs
A theory that states achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation.
McClelland's 3 needs
1. Need for achievement (nAch) 2. Need for power (nPow) 3. Need for affiliation (nAff); explain motivation
Need for affiliation (nAff)
The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.
Need for power (nPow)
The need to make others behave in a way in which they would not have behaved otherwise.
Need for achievement (nAch)
The drive to excel, to achieve in relationship to a set of standards, and to strive to succeed.
self-determination theory
A theory that is concerned with the motivation behind choices people make without external influence and interference.
cognitive evaluation theory
A version of self-determination theory which holds that allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling.
self-concordance
The degree to which peoples' reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values.
job engagement
The investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance.
goal-setting theory
A theory that says that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance.
management by objectives (MBO)
A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress.
self-efficacy
An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.
reinforcement theory
A theory that says that behavior is a function of its consequences.
behaviorism
A theory that argues that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.
social-learning theory
The view that we can learn through both observation and direct experience.
equity theory
A theory that says that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.
distributive justice
Perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals.
organizational justice
An overall perception of what is fair in the workplace, composed of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice.
procedural justice
The perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards.
interactional justice
The perceived degree to which an individual is treated with dignity, concern, and respect.
expectancy theory
A theory that says that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
Group
Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives.
Formal Group
A designated work group defined by an organization's structure.
Informal Group
A group that is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined; such a group appears in response to the need for social contact.
Social Identity Theory
Perspective that considers when and why individuals consider themselves members of groups.
Ingroup Favoritism
Perspective in which we see members of our ingroup as better than other people, and people not in our group as all the same.
Important characteristics of a social identity.
Similarity, Distinctiveness, Status, Uncertainty reduction
Five stages of group development
Forming, storming, Norming, Performing, Adjourning
Forming Stage
The first stage in group development, characterized by much uncertainty.
Storming Stage
The second stage in group development, characterized by intragroup conflict.
Norming stage
The third stage in group development, characterized by close relationships and cohesiveness
Performing stage
The fourth stage in group development, during which the group is fully functional
Adjourning stage
The final stage in group development for temporary groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance.
punctuated-equilibrium model
A set of phases that temporary groups go through that involves transitions between inertia and activity.
punctuated-equilibrium model
A set of phases that temporary groups go through that involves transitions between inertia and activity.
Role perception
An individual's view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation.
Role expectations
How others believe a person should act in a given situation.
psychological contract
An unwritten agreement that sets out what management expects from an employee and vice versa.
Role Conflict
A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations.
Norms
Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group's members.
conformity
The adjustment of one's behavior to align with the norms of the group.
Reference groups
Important groups to which individuals belong or hope to belong and with whose norms individuals are likely to conform.
Deviant workplace behavior
Voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and, in so doing, threatens the well-being of the organization or its members. Also called antisocial behavior or workplace incivility.
Status
A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others.
Status Characteristics Theory
A theory that states that differences in status characteristics create status hierarchies within groups.
3 sources of Status Characteristics Theory
1.) The power a person wields over others 2.) A person's ability to contribute to a group's goals 3.) An individual's personal characteristics.
The power a person wields over others
Because they likely control the group's resources, people who control the outcomes tend to be perceived as high status.
A person's ability to contribute to a group's goals
People whose contributions are critical to the group's success tend to have high status.
An individual's personal characteristics
Someone whose personal characteristics are positively valued by the group (good looks, intelligence, money, or a friendly personality) typically has higher status than someone with fewer valued attributes.
Social Loafing
The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually.
cohesiveness
The degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group.
diversity
The extent to which members of a group are similar to, or different from, one another.
groupthink
A phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action.
groupshift
A phenomenon where an individual's beliefs or actions become more extreme due to being a member of a group, as there is less risk when acting as a group member instead of acting individually.
interacting groups
Typical groups in which members interact with each other face to face.
brainstorming
An idea-generation process that specifically encourages any and all alternatives while withholding any criticism of those alternatives.
normal grouping technique
A group decision-making method in which individual members meet face to face to pool their judgments in a systematic but independent fashion.
electronic meeting
A meeting in which members interact on computers, allowing for anonymity of comments and aggregation of votes.
conflict
A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about.
traditional view of conflict
The belief that all conflict is harmful and must be avoided.
interactionist view of conflict
The belief that conflict is not only a positive force in a group but also an absolute necessity for a group to perform effectively.
functional conflict
Conflict that supports the goals of the group and improves its performance.
dysfunctional conflict
Conflict that hinders group performance.
task conflict
Conflict over content and goals of the work.
relationship conflict
Conflict based on interpersonal relationships
process conflict
Conflict over how work gets done.
conflict process
A process that has five stages: 1.) potential opposition or incompatibility 2). Cognition and personalization 3). Intentions 4). Behavior 5). Outcomes
perceived conflict
Awareness by one or more parties of the existence of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise.
felt conflict
Emotional involvement in a conflict that creates anxiety, tenseness, frustration, or hostility.
intentions
Decisions to act in a given way.
competing
A desire to satisfy one's interests, regardless of the impact on the other party to the conflict.
collaborating
A situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all parties.
avoiding
The desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict.
accommodating
The willingness of one party in a conflict to place the opponent's interests above his or her own.
compromising
A situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up something.
conflict management
The use of resolution and stimulation techniques to achieve the desired level of conflict.
negotiation
A process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them.
distributive bargaining
Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources; a win-lose situation.
fixed pie
The belief that there is only a set amount of goods or services to be divvied up between the parties.
integrative bargaining
Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create a win-win solution.
BATNA
The Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement; the least the individual should accept.
mediator
A neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning, persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives.
arbitrator
A third party to a negotiation who has the authority to dictate an agreement.
conciliator
A trusted third party who provides an informal communication link between the negotiator and the opponent.
Role
A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.
work group
A group that interacts primarily to share information and to make decisions to help each group member perform within his or her area of responsibility.
work team
A group whose individual efforts result in performance that is greater than the sum of the individual inputs.
problem solving teams
Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment.
self-managed work teams
Groups of 10 to 15 people who take on responsibilities of their former supervisors.
cross-functional teams
Employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task.
virtual teams
Teams that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.
multiteam systems
Systems in which different teams need to coordinate their efforts to produce a desired outcome.
organizational demography
The degree to which members of a work unit share a common demographic attribute, such as age, sex, race, educational level, or length of service in an organization, and the impact of this attribute on turnover.
reflexivity
A team characteristic of reflecting on and adjusting the master plan when necessary.
mental models
Team members' knowledge and beliefs about how the work gets done by the team.
organizational culture
A system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other organizations.
7 primary characteristics of organizational culture
1.) Innovation and risk taking 2.) Attention to detail 3.) Outcome orientation 4.) People orientation 5.) Team orientation 6.) Aggressiveness 7.) Stability
dominant culture
A culture that expresses the core values that are shared by a majority of the organization's members.
core values
The primary or dominant values that are accepted throughout the organization.
subcultures
Minicultures within an organization, typically defined by department designations and geographical separation.
strong culture
A culture in which the core values are intensely held and widely shared.
organizational climate
The shared perceptions organizational members have about their organization and work environment.
Institutionalization
A condition that occurs when an organization takes on a life of its own, apart from any of its members, and acquires immortality.
Socialization
A process that adapts employees to the organization's culture.
prearrival stage
The period of learning in the socialization process that occurs before a new employee joins the organization.
encounter stage
The stage in the socialization process in which a new employee sees what the organization is really like and confronts the possibility that expectations and reality may diverge.
metamorphosis stage
The stage in the socialization process in which a new employee changes and adjusts to the job, work group, and organization.
Rituals
Repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce the key values of the organization, which goals are most important, which people are important, and which are expendable.
Material Symbols
What conveys to employees who is important
Positive Organizational Culture
A culture that emphasizes building on employee strengths, rewards more than punishes, and emphasizes individual vitality and growth.
Workplace Spirituality
The recognition that people have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work that takes place in the context of community.
leadership
The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or set of goals.
trait theories of leadership
Theories that consider personal qualities and characteristics that differentiate leaders from non-leaders.
behavioral theories of leadership
Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from non-leaders.
initiating structure
The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of subordinates in the search for goal attainment.
consideration
The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates' ideas, and regard for their feelings.
employee-oriented leader
A leader who emphasizes interpersonal relations, takes a personal interest in the needs of employees, and accepts individual differences among members.
production-oriented leader
A leader who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job.
Fiedler contingency model
The theory that effective groups depend on a proper match between a leader's style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader.
least preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire
An instrument that purports to measure whether a person is task or relationship oriented.
leader-member relations
The degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinates have in their leader.
task structure
Refers to the degree to which the task is made clear to the employee who has to perform it.
position power
Influence derived from one's formal structural position in the organization; includes power to hire, fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases.
Fiedler's three contingency or situational dimensions
1.) leader-member relations 2.) task structure 3.) Position power
situational leadership theory (SLT)
There is no best style of leadership; it depends on the task and the individuals/groups that they attempting to lead.
path-goal theory
A theory that states that it is the leader's job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization.
leader-participation model
A leadership theory that provides a set of rules to determine the form and amount of participative decision making in different situations.
leader-member exchange (LMX) theory
A relationship-based approach to leadership that focuses on the two-way relationship between leaders and followers. It suggests that leaders develop an exchange with each of their subordinates, and that the quality of these leader-member exchange relation
charismatic leadership theory
A leadership theory that states that followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors.
Key Characteristics of a Charismatic Leader
1.) Vision and articulation 2.) personal risk 3.) sensitivity to follower needs 4.) Unconventional behavior
vision
A long-term stratey for attaining a goal or goals
vision statement
A formal articulation of an organization's vision or mission.
transactional leaders
Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements.
transformational leaders
Leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests and who are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers.
authentic leaders
Leaders who know who they are, know what they believe in and value, and act on those values and beliefs openly and candidly. Their followers would consider them to be ethical people.
socialized charismatic leadership
A leadership concept that states that leaders convey values that are other centered versus self centered and who role-model ethical conduct.
servant leadership
A leadership style marked by going beyond the leader's own self-interest and instead focusing on opportunities to help followers grow and develop.
trust
A positive expectation that another will not act opportunistically.
mentor
A senior employee who sponsors and supports a less-experienced employee, called a prot�g�.
attribution theory of leadership
A leadership theory that says that leadership is merely an attribution that people make about other individuals.
substitutes
Attributes, such as experience and training, that can replace the need for a leader's support or ability to create structure.
neutralizers
Attributes that make it impossible for leader behavior to make any difference to follower outcomes.
identification-based trust
Trust based on a mutual understanding of each other's intentions and appreciation of each other's wants and desires.
manager
An individual who achieves goals through other people.
organization
A consciously coordinated social unit, composed of two or more people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals.
planning
A process that includes defining goals, establishing strategy, and developing plans to coordinate activities.
organizing
Determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made
leading
A function that includes motivating employees, directing others, selecting the most effective communication channels, and resolving conflicts.
controlling
Monitoring activities to ensure they are being accomplished as planned and correcting any significant deviations.
Interpersonal Roles
Perform duties that are ceremonial and symbolic in nature. Figurehead, Leader, Liaison-- Minztberg
Informational Roles
Collect information from outside organizations and institutions, and also act as a conduit to transmit information to organizational members. Monitor, Disseminator, Spokesperson--Minztberg
Decisional Roles
Roles that require making choices--Entrepreneur, Disturbance Handler, Resource Allocator, Negotiator--Minztberg
technical skills
The ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise.
human skills
The ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people, both individually and in groups.
conceptual skills
The mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations
organizational behavior (OB)
A field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within organizations, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organization's effectiveness.
systematic study
Looking at relationships, attempting to attribute causes and effects, and drawing conclusions based on scientific evidence.
evidence-based management (EBM)
The basing of managerial decisions on the best available scientific evidence.
intuition
a gut feeling not necessarily supported by research
psychology
The science that seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behavior of humans and other animals.
social psychology
An area of psychology that blends concepts from psychology and sociology and that focuses on the influence of people on one another.
sociology
The study of people in relation to their social environment or culture.
anthropology
The study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities.
contingency variables
Situational factors: variables that moderate the relationship between two or more variables.
workforce diversity
The concept that organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in terms of gender, age, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and inclusion of other diverse groups.
positive organizational scholarship
An area of OB research that concerns how organizations develop human strength, foster vitality and resilience, and unlock potential.
ethical dilemmas and ethical choices
Situations in which individuals are required to define right and wrong conduct.
model
An abstraction of reality. A simplified representation of some real-world phenomenon.
input
Variables that lead to processes.
processes
Actions that individuals, groups, and organizations engage in as a result of inputs and that lead to certain outcomes.
outcomes
Key factors that are affected by some other variables.
task performance
The combination of effectiveness and efficiency at doing your core job tasks.
citizenship behavior
Discretionary behavior that contributes to the psychological and social environment of the workplace.
withdrawl behavior
The set of actions employee take to separate themselves from the organization.
group cohesion
The extent to which members of a group support and validate one another while at work
group functioning
The quantity and quality of a work group's output.
productivity
The combination of the effectiveness and efficiency of an organization.
effectiveness
The degree to which an organization meets the needs of its clientele or customers.
efficiency
The degree to which an organization can achieve its ends at a low cost.
organizational survival
The degree to which an organization is able to exist and grow over the long term
power
a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so that B acts in accordance with A's wishes.
dependence
B 's relationship to A when A possesses something that B requires.
coercive power
A power base that is dependent on fear of the negative results from failing to comply.
reward power
Compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable.
legitimate power
The power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization.
personal power
Influence derived from an individual's characteristics.
expert power
Influence based on special skills or knowledge.
referent power
Influence based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits.
power tactics
Ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions.
Nine influence tactics
1. Legitimacy 2. rational Persuasion 3. Inspirational appeals 4. Consultation 5. Exchange 6. Personal appeals 7. Ingratiation 8. Pressure 9. Coalitions
political skill
The ability to influence others in such a way as to enhance one's objectives.
sexual harassment
Any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual's employment and creates a hostile work environment.
political behavior
Activities that are not required as part of a person's formal role in the organization but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization.
defensive behaviors
Reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, blame, or change.
impression management
The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them.
Realistic
prefers physical activities that require skill, strength, coordination--shy genuine, persistent, stable, conforming, practical--mechanic, drill press, assembly line, farmer
Investigative
prefers activities that involve thinking, organizing, understanding--analytical, original, curious, independent--biologist, economist, mathematician, news reporter
Social
prefers activities that involve help and developing others--sociable, griendly, cooperativew, understanding--social worker, teacher, counselor, slinical psychologist
conventional
prefers rule-regulated, orderly, and unambiguous activities--conforming, efficient, practical, unimaginative, inflexible--accountant, corporate manager, bank teller, file clerk
Enterprising
prefers verbal activities in which there are opportunities to influence others and attain power--self-confidence, ambitious, energetic, domineering--lawyer, real estate, public relations, small business manager
artistic
prefers ambiguous and unsystematic activities that allow creative expression--imaginative, disorderly, idealistic, emotional, impractical--paineter, musician, writer, interior decorator
Neuroticism
The feeling anxiety, worry, fear, anger, frustration, envy, jealousy, guilt, depression, and loneliness.
Factors that influence perception
The perceiver, the target, and the situation
Ways to encourage group cohesiveness
1. Make the group smaller. 2. Encourage agreement with group goals. 3. Increase the time members spend together. 4. Increase the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of getting membership of the group. 5. Stimulate competition with other group
Altering the human variable
Changing the behavior of the conflicting parties
Altering the structural variable
Changing the structure of the group or organization to resolve conflict