Performance management
an organization-wide system whereby managers integrate the activities of goal setting, monitoring and evaluating, providing feedback and coaching, and rewarding employees on a continuous basis
Organizational behavior (OB) can shed valuable light on key as
Employees with a clear line of sight
understand the organization's strategic goals and know what actions they need to take, both individually and as team members.
Performance Outcome Goal
targets a specific end result
But for employees who lack the necessary skills, performance outcome goals are more frustrating than motivating. When skills are lacking, a developmental process is needed wherein learning goals precede performance outcome go
Learning Goal
strives to improve creativity and develop skills
When skills are lacking, a developmental process is needed wherein learning goals precede performance outcome goals.
Management by Objectives
a management system that incorporates participation into decision making, goal setting, and objective feedback. The central idea of MBO, getting individual employees to "own" a piece of a collective effort
Managing the Goal-Setting Process - Step 1: Set Goals
SMART is an acronym for specific, measurable, attainable, results oriented, and time bound.
There are two additional recommendations for Step 1. First, for complex tasks, employees need to be trained in problem-solving techniques and developing performanc
Managing the Goal-Setting Process - Step 2: Promote Goal Commitment
Goal commitment can be enhanced by following these guidelines:
Explain why the organization is committed to a comprehensive goal-setting program.
Create clear lines of sight by clarifying the corporate goals and linking the individual's goals to them. "Th
Managing the Goal-Setting Process - Step 3: Provide Support and Feedback
Practical guidelines include the following:
Make sure each employee has the necessary skills and information to reach his or her goals. As a pair of goal-setting experts succinctly stated, "Motivation without knowledge is useless."26 Training often is req
Feedback
objective information about individual or collective performance.
Subjective assessments such as "You're doing a poor job," "You're lazy," or "We really appreciate everyone's hard work" do not qualify as objective feedback. But hard data such as units sol
Feedback Practical Lessons
The acceptance of feedback should not be treated as a given; it is often misperceived or rejected. This is especially true in intercultural situations.
Managers can enhance their credibility as sources of feedback by developing their expertise and creatin
Feedback Trouble Signs
360-degree feedback
involves letting individuals compare their own perceived performance with behaviorally specific (and usually anonymous) performance information from their manager, subordinates, and peers. Even outsiders may be involved in what is sometimes called full-ci
Feedback for Coaching Purposes and Organizational Effectiveness
Focus on performance, not personalities.
Give specific feedback linked to learning goals and performance outcome goals.
Channel feedback toward key result areas for the organization.
Give feedback as soon as possible.
Give feedback to coach improvement, n
Organizational Reward Systems
Extrinsic Rewards
Financial, material, and social rewards qualify as extrinsic rewards because they come from the environment.
An employee who works to obtain extrinsic rewards, such as money or praise, is said to be extrinsically motivated.
Intrinsic Rewards
Psychic rewards, however, are intrinsic rewards because they are self-granted.
One who derives pleasure from the task itself or experiences a sense of competence or self-determination is said to be intrinsically motivated
Reward Distribution Criteria
three general criteria for the distribution of rewards are as follows:
Performance: results. Tangible outcomes such as individual, group, or organization performance; quantity and quality of performance.
Performance: actions and behaviors. Such as teamwor
Thomas's Building Blocks for Intrinsic Rewards and Motivation
Key Social Skills Managers Need for Building Social Capital
found 15 reasons why managers fail in the face of rapid change. The top two reasons were "ineffective communication skills/practices" and "poor work relationships/interpersonal skills
Group
two or more freely interacting people who share collective norms and goals and have a common identity
-size of a group is limited by the possibilities of mutual interaction and mutual awareness
ex. A total department, a union, or a whole organization woul
Four Sociological Criteria of a Group
1 - Two or more freely interacting individuals
2 - Collective norms
3 - Collective goals
4 - Common identity
Formal Group
group is formed by a manager to help the organization accomplish its goals
Formal groups typically wear such labels as work group, project team, committee, corporate board, or task force.
Informal Group
exists when the members' overriding purpose of getting together is friendship
Formal Groups Fulfill Organizational and Individual Functions
Social Networking Site (SNS)
A Web site that provides a virtual community for people interested in a particular subject or just to "hang out" together. Members create their own online "profile" with biographical data, pictures, likes, dislikes and any other information they choose to
Tuckman's Five-Stage Theory of Group Development
A word of caution is in order. Somewhat akin to Maslow's need hierarchy theory, Tuckman's theory has been repeated and taught so often and for so long that many have come to view it as documented fact, not merely a theory. Even today, it is good to rememb
Tuckman's Five-Stage Theory of Group Development Process
Stage 1: Forming
Ice breaking stage
Group members tend to be uncertain and anxious about their roles, the people in charge and the group's goals
Mutual trust is low
prior experience between members of the group can create friction
there is a good deal of
group cohesiveness
defined as the "we feeling" that binds members of a group together
Extending the Tuckman Model: Group Decay
Groups were observed actually shifting into reverse once Tuckman's "performing" stage was reached, in what the researchers called group decay
De-norming
As the project evolves, there is a natural erosion of standards of conduct. Group members drift in dif
Feedback
Interpersonal feedback increases as the group develops through successive stages.
Interpersonal feedback becomes more specific as the group develops.
As the group develops, positive feedback increases and negative feedback decreases.
The credibility of pe
Deadlines
Uncertain or shifting deadlines are a fact of life in many organizations. Interdependent organizational units and groups may keep each other waiting, may suddenly move deadlines forward or back, or may create deadlines that are known to be earlier than is
Leadership Styles
Leadership behavior that is active, aggressive, directive, structured, and task-oriented seems to have favorable results early in the group's history. However, when those behaviors are maintained throughout the life of the group, they seem to have a negat
Roles
-expected behaviors for a given position
-sets of behaviors that persons expect of occupants of a position
Role theory
attempts to explain how these social expectations influence employee behavior
A Role Episode
consists of a snapshot of the ongoing interaction between two people. In any given role episode, there is a role sender and a focal person who is expected to act out the role. Within a broader social context, one may be simultaneously a role sender and a
Role overload
Occurs when "the sum total of what role senders expect of the focal person far exceeds what he or she is able to do.
Role conflict
Experienced when "different members of the role set expect different things of the focal person
also may be experienced when internalized values, ethics, or personal standards collide with others' expectations.
role conflict and role ambiguity were associ
Role ambiguity
occurs when "members of the role set fail to communicate to the focal person expectations they have or information needed to perform the role, either because they do not have the information or because they deliberately withhold it
people experience role
Norms
an attitude, opinion, feeling, or action�shared by two or more people� that guides their behavior
help organizational members determine right from wrong and good from bad
groups where the norm was to express prejudices, condone discrimination, and laugh a
Ostracism
Rejection by group members
Norms - How they are Developed
1 - Explicit statements by supervisors or co-workers. For instance, a group leader might explicitly set norms about not drinking (alcohol) at lunch. (See Real World/Real People.)
2 - Critical events in the group's history. At times there is a critical eve
Norms - Why they are Enforced
-Help the group or organization survive
-Clarify or simplify behavioral expectations
-Help individuals avoid embarrassing situations
-Clarify the group's or organization's central values and/or unique identity
Task roles
enable the work group to define, clarify, and pursue a common purpose
keep the group on track
Maintenance roles
foster supportive and constructive interpersonal relationships
keep the group together
Functional Roles Preformed by Group Members
Roles that are not always performed when needed, such as those of coordinator, evaluator, and gatekeeper, can be performed in a timely manner by the formal leader or assigned to other members.
The task roles of initiator, orienter, and energizer are espec
Group Size
Within a contingency management framework group size depends on the manager's objective for the group.
If a high-quality decision is the main objective, then a three- to five-member group would be appropriate
If the objective is to generate creative ideas
Mathematical Modeling Approach
Involves building a mathematical model around certain desired outcomes of group action such as decision quality. Due to differing assumptions and statistical techniques, the results of this research are inconclusive
Laboratory Simulation Approach
based on the assumption that group behavior needs to be observed firsthand in controlled laboratory settings
It would be difficult, at least with respect to decision quality, to justify groups larger than five members.... Of course, to meet needs other th
Women Face an Uphill Battle in Mixed-Gender Task Groups
women overcome the effects of weaker handshakes, such that on average they do not receive lower interview performance ratings from interviewers, and that women may actually benefit more than do men if they present a strong and complete grip when they shak
Behavioral Categories of Sexual Harassment
out of seven female veterans of Afghanistan or Iraq who visit a Veterans Affairs center for medical care report being a victim of sexual assault or harassment during military duty
sexual harassment compounded by ethnic discrimination. Women experienced mo
Sexual Harassment - What exactly is?
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) says that unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature constitute sexual harassment when submission to such conduct is made a condition of
The Asch Effect
the distortion of individual judgment by a unanimous but incorrect opposition
"perception test"
Only 20% of Asch's subjects remained entirely independent; 80% yielded to the pressures of group opinion at least once! And 58% knuckled under to the "immoral
Blind Conformity
Robert I Sutton, a professor of management science at Stanford University, recently offered this blistering assessment of blind conformity:
Mindless imitation is among the most dangerous and widespread forms of management idiocy. One of the dumbest excuse
Groupthink
a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action
refers to a deterioration of mental effi
Symptoms of Groupthink Lead to Defective Decision Making
Symptoms of Groupthink
Invulnerability
Inherent morality
Rationalization
Stereotyped views of opposition
Self-censorship
Illusion of unanimity
Peer pressure
Mindguards
Groupthink Research and Prevention
Groups with a moderate amount of cohesiveness produce better decisions than low- or high-cohesive groups.
Highly cohesive groups victimized by groupthink make the poorest decisions, despite high confidence in those decisions
preventive measures:
1 - Each
Social Loafing
tendency for individual effort to decline as group size increases
Reasons for Social Loafing
-Equity of effort
-Loss of personal accountability
-Motivational loss due to sharing of rewards
-Coordination loss as more people perform the task
Social Loafing Theory and Research
Among the theoretical explanations for the social loafing effect are (1) equity of effort ("Everyone else is goofing off, so why shouldn't I?"), (2) loss of personal accountability ("I'm lost in the crowd, so who cares?"), (3) motivational loss due to the
Cyber Loafing
using the Internet for nonwork-related activities such as communicating with friends via e-mail and social media, Web surfing, shopping, and gaming
Dealing with Social Loafing in the Internet Age
Team
a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold them
teams are task groups that have matured to the performing stage (but not slipped into decay)
The essence of
Team - Evolution of
Four General Types of Work Teams and Their Outputs
(1) advice, (2) production, (3) project, and (4) action.
Each of these labels identifies a basic purpose.
For instance, advice teams generally make recommendations for managerial decisions.
Less commonly do they actually make final decisions.
In contrast,
Advice Teams
created to broaden the information base for managerial decisions
have a low degree of technical specialization
Coordination also is low because advice teams work pretty much on their own. Ad hoc committees (e.g., the annual picnic committee) have shorter
Production Teams
responsible for performing day-to-day operations
Minimal training for routine tasks accounts for the low degree of technical specialization. But coordination typically is high because work flows from one team to another.
Project Teams
require creative problem solving, often involving the application of specialized knowledge
time is critical
projects focus on a specific outcome (e.g., developing a new vaccine, producing a movie, or building a skyscraper)
the team may disband upon comple
Action Teams
High specialization is combined with high coordination
best exemplified by a baseball team.
High specialization is combined with high coordination. Nine highly trained athletes play specialized defensive positions. But good defensive play is not enough be
Effective Work Teams
work teams require a team-friendly organization if they are to be effective. Work teams need a support system. They have a much greater chance of success if they are nurtured and facilitated by the organization. The team's purpose needs to be in concert w
Team viability
defined as team members' satisfaction and continued willingness to contribute.
How Strong Are Your Teamwork Competencies?
Cooperation
Individuals are said to be cooperating when their efforts are systematically integrated to achieve a collective objective.
The greater the integration, the greater the degree of cooperation.
Why Work Teams Fail
The main threats to team effectiveness are unrealistic expectations leading to frustration. Frustration, in turn, encourages people to abandon teams. Both managers and team members can be victimized by unrealistic expectations.
On the left side is a list
Characteristics of Effective Teamwork
Real teamwork requires a concerted collective effort. It requires lots of tolerance, practice, and trial-and-error learning.
Cooperation versus Competition
A widely held assumption among managers is that "competition brings out the best in people." From an economic standpoint, business survival depends on staying ahead of the competition. But from an interpersonal standpoint, critics contend competition has
Research Support for Cooperation
Cooperation is superior to competition in promoting achievement and productivity.
Cooperation is superior to individualistic efforts in promoting achievement and productivity.
Cooperation without intergroup competition promotes higher achievement and prod
Trust
Reciprocal faith in others' intentions and behavior
The more employees trust management, the more engaged and productive they will be�and vice versa.
Trust involves "a cognitive 'leap' beyond the expectations that reason and experience alone would warrant
Propensity to trust
Propensity might be thought of as the general willingness to trust others. Propensity will influence how much trust one has for a trustee prior to data on that particular party being available. People with different developmental experiences, personality
Interpersonal Trust Involves a Cognitive Leap
How to Build Trust
Communication. Keep team members and employees informed by explaining policies and decisions and providing accurate feedback. Be candid about one's own problems and limitations. Tell the truth.
Support. Be available and approachable. Provide help, advice,
credibility
developing the integrity, intent, capabilities, and results that make you believable, both to yourself and to others
Cohesiveness
a process whereby "a sense of 'we-ness' emerges to transcend individual differences and motives
Cohesive group members stick together for one or both of the following reasons:
-they enjoy each others' company
-they need each other to accomplish a common g
Socio-emotional cohesiveness
a sense of togetherness that develops when individuals derive emotional satisfaction from group participation.
Instrumental cohesiveness
a sense of togetherness that develops when group members are mutually dependent on one another because they believe they could not achieve the group's goal by acting separately
A feeling of "we-ness" is instrumental in achieving the common goal.
Lessons from Group Cohesiveness Research
There is a small but statistically significant cohesiveness?performance effect.
The cohesiveness?performance effect was stronger for smaller and real groups (as opposed to contrived groups in laboratory studies).
The cohesiveness?performance effect become
Steps Managers Can Take to Enhance the Two Types of Group Cohesiveness
The trick is to keep task groups small, make sure performance standards and goals are clear and accepted, achieve some early successes, and follow the tips in Table 11-5.
Basic Distinctions between Virtual Teams and Self-Managed Teams
two types of teams are distinct but not totally unique.
Overlaps exist. For instance, computer-networked virtual teams may or may not have volunteer members and may or may not be self-managed. Another point of overlap involves the fifth variable in Table
Virtual team
physically dispersed task group that conducts its business primarily through modern information technology
Virtual groups formed over the Internet follow a group development process similar to that for face-to-face groups
Successful use of groupware (soft
How to Create and Manage a Virtual Team
Self-managed teams
Groups of employees granted administrative oversight for their work.
Accountability is maintained indirectly by outside managers and leaders
Team advisers rely on four indirect influence tactics:
Relating. Understanding the organization's power structure,
Cross Functionalism
A common feature of self-managed teams, particularly among those above the shop-floor or clerical level, is cross-functionalism.
In other words, specialists from different areas are put on the same team.
Ways to Empower Self-Managed Teams
Team Building
Experiential learning aimed at better internal functioning of groups.
is a catch-all term for a whole host of techniques aimed at improving the internal functioning of work groups. Whether conducted by company trainers or outside consultants, team-buildin
Attributes of High-Performance Teams
Participative leadership. Creating an interdependency by empowering, freeing up, and serving others.
Shared responsibility. Establishing an environment in which all team members feel as responsible as the manager for the performance of the work unit.
Alig
Assessing the Effectiveness of Team Building
Reaction
-How did the participants feel about the activity?
Learning
-Did the experience increase knowledge or improve skills?
Behavior
-Did participants' on-the-job behavior improve as a result of the activity?
Results
-Did participants subsequently achi
Team Leadership
Team leadership aimed at building group cohesiveness and limiting conflict tended to enhance team performance
A coaching style of leadership was effective for charismatic leaders when dealing with team members having low self-efficacy. A directive style w
Decision making
identifying and choosing alternative solutions that lead to a desired state of affairs
You can use two broad approaches to make decisions. You can follow a rational model or various nonrational models.
Rational Model
proposes that managers use a rational four-step approach to decision making. the rational model is based on the notion that managers optimize when making decisions.
Stage 1 - Identify the Problem or Opportunity
Problem - exists when the actual situation a
Optimizing
involves solving problems by producing the best possible solution and is based on a set of highly desirable assumptions�having complete information, leaving emotions out of the decision-making process, honestly and accurately evaluating all alternatives,
Nonrational models
Attempt to explain how decisions are actually made
Decision making is uncertain
Decision makers do not possess complete information
Difficult for managers to make optimal decisions
Two nonrational models are Herbert Simon's normative model and the garbage
Simon's Normative Model
Bounded rationality
represents the notion that decision makers are "bounded" or restricted by a variety of constraints when making decisions. These constraints include any personal characteristics or internal and external resources that reduce rational de
Garbage Can Model
decision making is sloppy and haphazard
decisions result from complex interaction of four independent streams of events: problems, solutions, participants and choice opportunities
attempts to explain how problems, solutions, participants, and choice oppor
Implications of the Garbage Can Model
More pronounced in industries that rely on science-based innovations
Many decisions are made by oversight
Political motives frequently influence decision makers
Important decisions are more likely to be solved
Integrating Rational and Nonrational Models
A simple context is stable, and clear cause-and-effect relationships can be discerned, so the best answer can be agreed on. This context calls for the rational model, where the decision maker gathers information, categorizes it, and responds in an establi
Judgmental heuristics
rules of thumb or shortcuts that people use to reduce information processing demands.
We automatically use them without conscious awareness. The use of heuristics helps decision makers to reduce the uncertainty inherent within the decision-making process.
Decision-Making Biases
(1) availability, (2) representativeness, (3) confirmation, (4) anchoring, (5) overconfidence, (6) hindsight, (7) framing, and (8) escalation of commitment.
Availability heuristic
The availability heuristic represents a decision maker's tendency to base decisions on information that is readily available in memory. Information is more accessible in memory when it involves an event that recently occurred, when it is salient (e.g., a
Representativeness heuristic
The representativeness heuristic is used when people estimate the probability of an event occurring. It reflects the tendency to assess the likelihood of an event occurring based on one's impressions about similar occurrences.
A manager, for example, may
Confirmation bias
The confirmation bias has two components. The first is to subconsciously decide something before investigating why it is the right decision, for example, deciding to purchase a particular type of PDA (personal digital assistant). This directly leads to th
Anchoring bias
The anchoring bias occurs when decision makers are influenced by the first information received about a decision, even if it is irrelevant. This bias happens because initial information, impressions, data, feedback, or stereotypes anchor our subsequent ju
Overconfidence bias
The overconfidence bias relates to our tendency to be over-confident about estimates or forecasts.
This bias is particularly strong when you are asked moderate to extremely difficult questions rather than easy ones.
Imagine the problem this bias might cre
Hindsight bias
The hindsight bias occurs when knowledge of an outcome influences our belief about the probability that we could have predicted the outcome earlier. We are affected by this bias when we look back on a decision and try to reconstruct why we decided to do s
Framing bias
This bias relates to the manner in which a question is posed.
Research shows that most people chose Program A even though the two programs produce the same results. This result is due to the framing bias. The framing bias is the tendency to consider risks
Escalation of commitment bias
The escalation of commitment bias refers to the tendency to stick to an ineffective course of action when it is unlikely that the bad situation can be reversed. Personal examples include investing more money into an old or broken car or putting more effor
Evidence-based decision making (EBDM)
represents a process of conscientiously using the best available data and evidence when making managerial decisions
Seven Implementation Principles:
1 - Treat your organization as an unfinished prototype
2 - No brag, just facts
3 - See yourself and your o
Value orientation
reflects the extent to which an individual focuses on either task and technical concerns or people and social concerns when making decisions
Some people, for instance, are very task focused at work and do not pay much attention to people issues, whereas o
Tolerance for ambiguity
extent to which a person has a high need for structure or control in his life
This individual difference indicates the extent to which a person has a high need for structure or control in his or her life. Some people desire a lot of structure in their liv
Decision-Making Styles
reflects the combination of how an individual perceives and comprehends stimuli and the general manner in which he or she chooses to respond to such information.
styles vary along two different dimensions: value orientation and tolerance for ambiguity.
Wh
directive
People with a directive style have a low tolerance for ambiguity and are oriented toward task and technical concerns when making decisions. They are efficient, logical, practical, and systematic in their approach to solving problems. People with this styl
analytical
This style has a much higher tolerance for ambiguity and is characterized by the tendency to overanalyze a situation. People with this style like to consider more information and alternatives than do directives. Analytic individuals are careful decision m
conceptual
People with a conceptual style have a high tolerance for ambiguity and tend to focus on the people or social aspects of a work situation. They take a broad perspective to problem solving and like to consider many options and future possibilities. Conceptu
behavioral
This style is the most people oriented of the four styles. People with this style work well with others and enjoy social interactions in which opinions are openly exchanged. Behavioral types are supportive, receptive to suggestions, show warmth, and prefe
Intuition
represents judgments, insights, or decisions that "come to mind on their own, without explicit awareness of the evoking cues and of course without explicit evaluation of the validity of these cues".
Holistic hunch
judgment that is based on a subconscious
Pros and Cons of Using Intuition When Making Decisions
On the positive side, intuition can speed up the decision-making process. Intuition thus can be valuable in our complex and ever-changing world. Intuition may be a practical approach when resources are limited and deadlines are tight.
On the downside, int
Guidelines for Developing Intuitive Awareness
You can develop your intuitive awareness by using the guidelines shown in...
Decision tree
graphical representation of the process underlying decisions and it shows the resulting consequences of making various choices
the decision tree does provide a framework for considering the trade-offs between managerial and corporate actions and manageria
Minority dissent
extent to which group members feel comfortable disagreeing with other group members, and a group's level of participation in decision making
most innovative groups possessed high levels of both minority dissent and participation in decision making.
How ca
Advantages and Disadvantages of Group-Aided Decision Making
If additional information would increase the quality of the decision, managers should involve those people who can provide the needed information.
If acceptance is important, managers need to involve those individuals whose acceptance and commitment are i
Group versus Individual Performance
here are five important issues to consider when using groups to make decisions:
1 - Groups were less efficient than individuals. It thus is important to consider time constraints when determining whether to involve groups in decision making.
2 - Groups we
Group Problem Solving Techniques
Consensus
reached when all members can say they either agree with the decision or have had their 'day in court' and were unable to convince the others of their viewpoint. Everyone agrees to support the outcome.
Brainstorming
process to generate a quantity
Rules for Brainstorming
Defer judgment. Don't criticize during the initial stage of idea generation. Phrases such as "We've never done it that way," "It won't work," "It's too expensive," and "Our manager will never agree" should not be used.
Build on the ideas of others. Encour
Nominal Group Technique
helps groups generate ideas and evaluate and select solutions.
NGT is a structured group meeting that follows this format:
-A group is convened. After the problem is understood, individuals silently generate ideas in writing. Each individual, in round-rob
Delphi Technique
The Delphi technique is a group process that anonymously generates ideas or judgments from physically dispersed experts. Unlike NGT, experts' ideas are obtained from questionnaires or via the Internet as opposed to face-to-face group discussions.
A manage
Creativity
process of using intelligence, imagination, and skill to develop a new or novel product, object, process, or thought
Individual creative behavior is directly affected by a variety of individual characteristics. First off, creativity requires motivation. I
The Creativity Stages
Researchers are not absolutely certain how creativity takes place.
creativity involves "making remote associations" between unconnected events, ideas, information stored in memory or physical objects
The preparation stage reflects the notion that creativi
Major Trends that Make Organizational Conflict Inevitable
Constant change
Greater employee diversity
More teams (virtual and self-managed)
Less face-to-face communication
Global economy with increased cross-cultural dealings
Conflict
process in which one party perceives its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party
Conflict can escalate (strengthen) or deescalate (weaken) over time.
current and future managers need to understand the dynamics of conflict and k
Relationship between Conflict Intensity and Outcomes
Work groups, departments, or organizations experiencing too little conflict tend to be plagued by apathy, lack of creativity, indecision, and missed deadlines.
Excessive conflict, on the other hand, can erode organizational performance because of politica
Functional versus Dysfunctional Conflict
Functional conflict
Serves organization's interests
Also called constructive or cooperative conflict
Dysfunctional conflict
threatens organization's interests.
Why People Avoid Conflict
we avoid conflict because we fear various combinations of the following things: "harm," "rejection," "loss of relationship," "anger," "being seen as selfish," "saying the wrong thing," "failing," "hurting someone else," "getting what you want," and "intim
Antecedents of Conflict
Among the situations tending to produce either functional or dysfunctional conflict are:
Incompatible personalities or value systems.
Overlapping or unclear job boundaries.
Interdepartment/intergroup competition.
Competition for limited resources.
Inadequ
Desired Conflict Outcomes
Agreement. But at what cost? Equitable and fair agreements are best. An agreement that leaves one party feeling exploited or defeated will tend to breed resentment and subsequent conflict.
Stronger relationships. Good agreements enable conflicting parties
Types of Conflict
Personality conflict
interpersonal opposition driven by personal dislike, disagreement, or different styles
Workplace incivility
rudeness or a lack of regard for another person
Day of contemplation
A one-time-only day off with pay to allow a problem emplo
How to Deal With Personality Conflicts
Personality traits, by definition, are stable and resistant to change.
Employees in the United States suffering from psychological disorders such as depression and mood-altering diseases such as alcoholism are protected from discrimination by the American
Intergroup Conflict
conflict among work groups, teams, and departments
A certain amount of cohesiveness can turn a group of individuals into a smooth-running team. Too much cohesiveness, however, can breed groupthink because a desire to get along pushes aside critical thinki
Contact hypothesis
the more the members of different groups interact, the less intergroup conflict they will experience
Research Lessons for Handling Intergroup Conflict
The top priority for managers faced with intergroup conflict is to identify and root out specific negative linkages between (or among) groups.
A single personality conflict may contaminate the entire intergroup experience. The same goes for an employee wh
An Updated Contact Model for Minimizing Intergroup Conflict
priority number one for managers faced with intergroup conflict is to identify and root out specific negative linkages among groups.
Cross-Cultural Conflict
Because of differing assumptions about how to think and act, the potential for cross-cultural conflict is both immediate and huge.
Success or failure when conducting business across cultures often hinges on avoiding and minimizing actual or perceived conf
How to Build Cross-Cultural Relationships
Good listening skills topped the list, followed by sensitivity to others and cooperativeness rather than competitiveness.
Interestingly, US managers are culturally characterized as just the opposite: poor listeners, blunt to the point of insensitivity, an
Programmed Conflict
conflict that raises different opinions regardless of the personal feelings of the managers
The trick is to get contributors to either defend or criticize ideas based on relevant facts rather than on the basis of personal preference or political interests
Techniques for Stimulating Functional Conflict: Devil's Advocacy and the Dialectic Method
Devil's advocacy
assigning someone the role of critic.
Dialectic method
calls for managers to foster a structured debate of opposing viewpoints prior to making a decision. A major drawback of the dialectic method is that "winning the debate" may overshado
Five Conflict Handling Styles
Integrating
interested parties confront the issue and cooperatively identify the problem, generate and weigh alternative solutions, and select a solution.
appropriate for complex issues plagued by misunderstanding.
inappropriate for resolving conflicts ro
Third-Party Intervention Options for Handling Conflict Triangles
Conflict triangle
occurs when two people are having a problem and, instead of addressing the problem directly with each other, one of them gets a third person involved
Alternative Dispute Resolution
avoiding costly lawsuits by resolving conflicts informal
Alternative Dispute Resolution
Facilitation. A third party, usually a manager, informally urges disputing parties to deal directly with each other in a positive and constructive manner. This can be a form of detriangling, as discussed earlier.
Conciliation. A neutral third party inform
Practical Lessons from Conflict Research
-People with a high need for affiliation tended to rely on a smoothing (obliging) style while avoiding a forcing (dominating) style.
-Disagreement expressed in an arrogant and demeaning manner produced significantly more negative effects than the same sor
Negotiating
Negotiation
give-and-take decision-making process involving interdependent parties with different preferences
Two types:
Distributive
Integrative
Distributive negotiation involves traditional win-lose thinking. Integrative negotiation calls for a progress
Added-Value Negotiation
Ethical Pitfalls in Negotiation
Practical Lessons from Negotiation Research
-Negotiators with fixed-pie expectations produced poor joint outcomes because they restricted and mismanaged information.
-a slight tendency for women to negotiate more cooperatively than men. But when faced with an "apples-for-apples" bargaining strategy
core emotional elements of negotiation
Appreciation: acknowledge that each other's thoughts, feelings, and actions have merit.
Affiliation: treat each other as colleagues rather than as adversaries to be kept at a distance.
Autonomy: respect each other's freedom to make important decisions.
St
Communication
the exchange of information between a sender and receiver and the inference (perception) of meaning between the individuals involved
A Perceptual Model of Communication
Sender - person wanting to communicate information-the message
Receiver - person, group, or organization for whom the message is intended
Encoding - translates thoughts into code or language that can be understood by others. This forms the foundation of t
Barriers to Effective Communication
1) Personal barriers - any individual attribute that hinders communication
-Variable skills in communicating effectively
-Variations in how information is processed and interpreted
-Variations in interpersonal trust
-Stereotypes and prejudices
-Big egos
-
Communication competence / Communication Styles
the ability to communicate effectively in specific situations
Nonverbal Communication
-any message, sent or received independent of the written or spoken word
-includes such factors as use of time and space, distance between persons when conversing, use of color, dress, walking behavior, standing, positioning, seating arrangement, office l
Listening
-Process of actively decoding and interpreting verbal messages.
-requires cognitive attention and information processing
Listening Styles
1) Appreciative - listens for pleasure, entertainment, or inspiration. He or she tends to tune out speakers who provide no amusement or humor in their communications.
2) Empathetic - interprets messages by focusing on emotions and body language. They also
Keys to Effective Listening
we can improve our listening skills by adhering to the following three fundamental recommendations:
- Attend closely to what's being said, not to what you want to say next.
- Allow others to finish speaking before taking your turn.
- Repeat back what you'
Communication Differences between Women and Men
Genderflex
entails the temporary use of communication behaviors typical of the other gender in order to increase the potential for influence.
Linguistic style
refers to a person's characteristic speaking pattern. It includes such features as directness or indirectness, pacing and pausing, word choice, and the use of such elements as jokes, figures of speech, stories, questions, and apologies. In other words, li
Formal Communication Channels
Upward communication - involves communicating with someone at a higher organizational level. Employees may communicate upward about themselves, problems with co-workers, organizational practices and policies they do not understand or dislike, and results
Tips for conducting Town Hall Meetings
The size of the meeting depends on the logistics of your workforce and the message being delivered. If you have good news to tell a number of employees, you can split them into more intimate groups if you like. But if the news is bad, it's better to have
Informal Communication Channels
Do not follow the chain of command or organizational structure.
Grapevine - Unofficial communication system of the informal organization. (1) it is faster than formal channels; (2) it is about 75% accurate; (3) people rely on it when they are insecure, th
Management by Walking Around (MBWA)
involves managers literally walking around the organization and informally talking to people from all departments and levels. It is an effective way to communicate because employees prefer to get information directly from their manager.
tips for conductin
Media richness
-involves the capacity of a given communication medium to convey information and promote understanding
-based on feedback, channel, type of communication, and language source
Media richness is based on four factors:
(1) feedback (ranging from fast to very
A Contingency Model for Selecting Communication Media
there are three zones of communication effectiveness. Effective communication occurs when the richness of the medium is matched appropriately with the complexity of the problem or situation.
Media low in richness�impersonal static and personal static�are
Protecting against Security and Privacy Breaches on the Internet
What Makes the Internet Generation Tick? Eight Norms
Freedom. A desire to experience new and different things takes precedence over long-term commitments. Flexible work hours and locations, a say in how things are done, and freedom of choice are desirable.
Customization. Everything from personalized cell ph
telecommuting
allows the work to travel electronically to and from the person's home.
teleworking
connecting to the office from practically anywhere
synchronous communication
Employees in different locations and time zones can work simultaneously
asynchronous communication
team members can work on the same project at different times
Practical Email Tips
Do not assume e-mail is confidential. Employers are increasingly monitoring all e-mail. Assume your messages will be a matter of permanent record and can be read by anyone.
Be professional and courteous. Recommendations include delete trailing messages, d
Workplace Policy Guidelines for Using Social Media
Company approval is required for authors who use electronic resources of the company to send "tweets" or other public messages.
Any identification of the author, including usernames, pictures or logos, or "profile" web pages should not use logos, trademar
Mutuality of interest
involves win-win situations in which one's self-interest is served by cooperating actively and creatively with potential adversaries.
The Constant Tug-of-War between Self-Interest and Mutuality of Interest Requires Managerial Action
Nine Generic Influence Tactics
1) Rational persuasion. Trying to convince someone with reason, logic, or facts.
2) Inspirational appeals. Trying to build enthusiasm by appealing to others' emotions, ideals, or values.
3) Consultation. Getting others to participate in planning, making d
Three Possible Influence Outcomes
1) Commitment - is more likely when people rely on consultation, strong rational persuasion, and inspirational appeals and do not rely on pressure and coalition tactics. Interestingly, in one study, managers were not very effective at downward influence.
Social power
ability to marshal the human, informational, and material resources to get something done
1) Socialized power - plans, self-doubts, mixed outcomes and concerns for others
2) Personalized power - expressions of power for the sake of personal aggrandizement
Five Bases of Power
1) Reward - obtaining compliance by promising or granting rewards. Reward power is at the heart of shaping on-the-job behavior with verbal or written recognition and other forms of positive reinforcement. Employees tell us one of the problems they have wi
Empowerment
recognizing and releasing into the organization the power that people already have in their wealth of useful knowledge, experience, and internal motivation.
The Evolution of Power
Participative management
the process whereby employees play a direct role in (1) setting goals, (2) making decisions, (3) solving problems, and (4) making changes in the organization. Participative management includes, but goes beyond, simply asking employees for their ideas or o
Delegation
-the process of granting decision-making authority to lower-level employees
-amounts to power distribution
Delegation has long been the recommended way to lighten the busy manager's load while at the same time developing employees' abilities.
Importantly,
Barriers to Delegation
-Belief in the fallacy, "If you want it done right, do it yourself."
-Lack of confidence and trust in lower-level employees.
-Low self-confidence.
-Fear of being called lazy.
-Vague job definition.
-Fear of competition from those below.
-Reluctance to tak
Personal Initiative: The Other Side of Delegation
Is characterized by the following aspects: it (1) is consistent with the organization's mission,
(2) has a long-term focus,
(3) is goal-directed and action-oriented,
(4) is persistent in the face of barriers and setbacks, and
(5) is self-starting and proa
Randolph's Empowerment Model
Four P's of Political Success
1) Power Assessment - How can you improve your leverage position?
2) Performance - How can your work make the business more successful?
3) Perception - How can you enhance your reputation, especially with those who can achieve your goals?
4) Partnerships
Organizational politics
intentional acts of influence to enhance or protect the self-interests of individuals or groups. An emphasis on self-interest distinguishes this form of social influence. Managers are constantly challenged to achieve a workable balance between employees'
Sources of Uncertainty
Five common sources of uncertainty within organizations are
Unclear objectives.
Vague performance measures.
Ill-defined decision processes.
Strong individual or group competition.
Any type of change.
Levels of Political Action in Organizations
Coalition - an informal group bound together by the active pursuit of a single issue
Coalitions may or may not coincide with formal group membership. When the target issue is resolved (a sexual-harassing supervisor is fired, for example), the coalition di
Common Political Tactics in Organizations
Listed in descending order of occurrence, the eight political tactics that emerged were
Attacking or blaming others.
Using information as a political tool.
Creating a favorable image. (Also known as impression management.)
Developing a base of support.
Pr
Are You Politically Naive, Politically Sensible, or a Political Shark?
Impression management
the process by which people attempt to control or manipulate the reactions of others to images of themselves or their ideas
Favorable Impression Management
Job-focused - manipulating information about one's performance
Supervisor-focused - praising and do
Making a Good Impression
If you "dress for success," project an upbeat attitude at all times, and have polished a 15-second elevator speech for top executives, you are engaging in favorable impression management�particularly so if your motive is to improve your lot in life.
Making a Poor Impression
Four motives:
(1) Avoidance: Employee seeks to avoid additional work, stress, burnout, or an unwanted transfer or promotion.
(2) Obtain concrete rewards: Employee seeks to obtain a pay raise or a desired transfer, promotion, or demotion.
(3) Exit: Employe
Managing Organizational Politics
Measurable objectives are management's first line of defense against counterproductive organizational politics.
An individual's degree of politicalness is a matter of personal values, ethics, and temperament. People who are either strictly nonpolitical or
Leadership
-Process between leaders and followers
-Involves social influence
-Occurs at multiple levels in an organization
-Focuses on goal accomplishment
Approaches to Studying Leadership
Contingency approaches focused on identifying the types of leadership behaviors that are most effective in different settings.
The transformational approach is the most popular perspective for studying leadership today.
Characteristics of Being a Leader and a Manager
leaders manage and managers lead, but the two activities are not synonymous
Broadly speaking, managers typically perform functions associated with planning, investigating, organizing, and control, and leaders deal with the interpersonal aspects of a manag
Leader Trait Theory
Trait theory is the successor to what was called the "great man" theory of leadership. This approach was based on the assumption that leaders such as Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King Jr., or Mark Zuckerberg were born with some inborn ability to lead. I
Implicit leadership theory
based on the idea that people have beliefs about how leaders should behave and what they should do for their followers. These beliefs are summarized in what is called a leadership prototype.
Leadership prototype
mental representations of the traits and behaviors that people believe are possessed by leaders.
Although past research demonstrated that people were perceived as leaders when they exhibited masculine-oriented traits and behaviors associated with masculin
Is Honesty a Critical Leadership Trait?
James Kouzes and Barry Posner attempted to identify key leadership traits by asking the following open-ended question to more than 20,000 people around the world: "What values (personal traits or characteristics) do you look for and admire in your superio
Is Emotional Intelligence a Key Leadership Trait?
Emotional intelligence is the ability to manage oneself and one's relationships in mature and constructive ways: The six components of emotional intelligence are shown in Table 5-5. Given that leadership is an influence process between leaders and followe
Is Personality More Important Than Intelligence?
extraversion was most consistently and positively related to both leadership emergence and effectiveness. Conscientiousness and openness to experience also were positively correlated with leadership effectiveness. personality is more important than intell
Bad Leader Traits
-Incompetent - The leader and at least some followers lack the will or skill (or both) to sustain effective action. With regard to at least one important leadership challenge, they do not create positive change.
-Rigid - The leader and at least some follo
Gender and Leadership
(1) Men and women were seen as displaying more task and social leadership, respectively;
(2) women used a more democratic or participative style than men, and men used a more autocratic and directive style than women;
(3) men and women were equally assert
Behavioral Styles Theory
The Ohio State Studies identified two independent dimensions of leader behavior.
-Consideration: creating mutual respect and trust with followers.
-Initiating structure: organizing and defining what group members should be doing.
-Leader behaviors can be
Peter Drucker's Tips for Improving Leadership Effectiveness
Situational theories
propose that the effectiveness of a particular style of leader behavior depends on the situation.
Fiedler's Contingency Model
based on the premise that a leader's effectiveness is contingent on the extent to which a leader's style fits or matches characteristics of the situation at hand.
Fiedler believes that leaders have one dominant or natural leadership style that is resistan
Path-Goal Theory
Describes how leadership effectiveness is influenced by the interaction between four leadership styles - directive, supportive, participative, achievement-oriented
Path-goal theory has two groups of contingency variables. They are employee characteristics
Categories of Leader Behavior within the Revised Path-Goal Theory
Three key changes:
1) Leadership is more complex and involves a greater variety of leader behavior.
2) The role of intrinsic motivation and empowerment in influencing leadership effectiveness
3) Shared leadership
Applying Situational Theories
1) Identify important outcomes. This step entails a determination of the goals the leader is trying to achieve. It is important to identify the key goals that exist at a specific point in time.
2) Identify relevant leadership types/behaviors. This step re
The Full-range Model of Leadership
Transactional Leadership focuses on clarifying employees' role and task requirements and providing followers with positive and negative rewards contingent on performance. encompasses the fundamental managerial activities of setting goals, monitoring progr
Support for transformational leadership underscores six important managerial implications.
1) the establishment of a positive vision of the future�inspirational motivation�should be considered a first step at applying transformational leadership.
2) the best leaders are not just transformational; they are both transactional and transformational
The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model of Leadership
Focuses on the quality of relationships between managers and subordinates as opposed to the behaviors or traits of either leaders or followers.
Assumes that leaders develop unique one-on-one relationships with direct reports.
In-group exchange
-Leaders an
Shared Leadership
dynamic, interactive influence process among individuals in groups for which the objective is to lead one another to the achievement of group or organizational goals or both
This influence process often involves peer, or lateral, influence and at other ti
Servant leadership
focuses on increasing services to others rather than to oneself
less likely to engage in self-serving behaviors that hurt others
The Role of Followers in the Leadership Process
the success of both leaders and followers is contingent on the dynamic relationship among the people involved.
both leaders and followers are closely linked. You cannot lead without having followers, and you cannot follow without having leaders.
both lead
four-step process for followers to use in managing the leader-follower relationship.
First, it is critical for followers to understand their boss. Followers should attempt to gain an appreciation for their manager's leadership style, interpersonal style, goals, expectations, pressures, and strengths and weaknesses. One way of doing this i
Organization
system of consciously coordinated activities or sources of two or more people.
Embodied in the conscious coordination aspect of this definition are four common denominators of all organizations:
1) coordination of effort - is achieved through formulation
Organization chart
a graphic representation of formal authority and division of labor relationships
Dimensions of an Organizational Structure
-Hierarchy of authority - delineates the official communication network and speaks volumes about compensation. Research shows that t
An Open-System Perspective
Closed System
self-sufficient entity, closed to the surrounding environment.
Open System
depends on constant interaction with the environment for survival
Learning Organizations
Learning organization
one that proactively creates, acquires, and transfers knowledge and that changes its behavior on the basis of new knowledge and insights.
Learning organizations actively try to infuse their organizations, and associated team mental m
Factors That Detract from an Organization's Ability to Learn from Failure
Organization Design
The structures of accountability and responsibility used to develop and implement strategies, and the human resource practices and information and business processes that activate those structures
Traditional Design
-Functional structure groups people acc
Principles for Designing a Horizontal Organization
-Organize around complete workflow processes
-Flatten hierarchy and use teams to manage everything
-Appoint process team leaders to manage internal team processes
-Let supplier and customer contact drive performance
-Provide required expertise from outsid
The Contingency Approach to Designing Organizations
organizations tend to be more effective when they are structured to fit the demands of the situation
Mechanistic versus Organic Organizations
Mechanistic organizations
Rigid bureaucracies with strict rules, narrowly defined tasks, and top-down communication.
Organic organizations
Flexible networks of multitalented individuals who perform a variety of tasks
Different Approaches to Decision Making
Centralized decision making
key decisions are made by top management
Decentralized decision making
important decisions are made by middle- and lower-level managers
Four Dimensions of Organizational Effectiveness
Goal accomplishment
Key organizational results or outputs are compared with previously stated goals or objectives
most widely used effectiveness criteria
Resource acquisition
organization is effective if it acquires necessary factors of production
Interna
Multiple Effectiveness Criteria: Some Practical Guidelines
Managers need to identify and seek input from strategic constituencies. This information, when merged with the organization's stated mission and philosophy, enables management to derive an appropriate combination of effectiveness criteria. The following g
Warning Signs of Ineffectiveness
Short of illegal conduct, there are early warning signs of organizational decline:
1) Excess personnel.
2) Tolerance of incompetence.
3) Cumbersome administrative procedures.
4) Disproportionate staff power (e.g., technical staff specialists politically o
Organizational Innovation
Innovation
Creation of something new that is used by consumers.
Seeds of Innovation:
1) Hard work in a specific direction. Most innovations come from dedicated people diligently working to solve a well-defined problem. This hard work can span many years.
Challenges of Innovation
The challenges include the following:
1) Find an idea. An idea is needed to create something new, and people can get ideas from many different sources: concentrated thinking, past experience, daydreaming, reading, talking with others, or intuition.
2) Dev
Forces of Change
External forces for change originate outside the organization
Demographic characteristics - organizations are changing employment benefits and aspects of the work environment in order to attract, motivate, and retain diverse employees. Organizations also
A Generic Typology of Organizational Change
This typology is generic because it relates to all sorts of change, including both administrative and technological changes.
Adaptive change is lowest in complexity, cost, and uncertainty. It involves reimplementation of a change in the same organizationa
Lewin's Change Model
it is important to highlight the assumptions underlying this model:
-The change process involves learning something new, as well as discontinuing current attitudes, behaviors, or organizational practices.
-Change will not occur unless there is motivation
A Systems Model of Change
Systems Approach
-Based on the notion that any change, no matter how large or small, has a cascading effect throughout an organization
-Takes a "big picture" perspective of organizational change
Mission statement
represents the "reason" an organization ex
Target Elements of Change
the components of an organization that may be changed. A problem exists when managers are not obtaining the results they desire. The target elements of change are used to diagnose problems and to identify change-related solutions.
-Organizational arrangem
Steps to Leading Organizational Change
prescribes how managers should sequence or lead the change process.
Creating Change Through Organization Development
Organization Development consists of planned efforts to help persons work and live together more effectively, over time, in their organizations
A change agent is someone who is a catalyst in helping organizations to deal with old problems in new ways. Cha
A Dynamic Model of Resistance to Change
Resistance to change
-An emotional or behavioral response to real or imagined threats to an established work routine
Why People Resist Change in the Workplace
1) An individual's predisposition toward change - This predisposition is highly personal and dee
Change Agent Characteristics
1) Decisions that disrupt cultural traditions or group relationships. Whenever individuals are transferred, promoted, or reassigned, cultural and group dynamics are thrown into disequilibrium.
2) Personality conflicts. Just as a friend can get away with t
Overcoming Resistance to Change
-Provide as much information as possible to employees about the change
-Inform employees about the rationale for the change
-Conduct meetings to address employee's concerns
-Provide employees the opportunity to discuss how the proposed change might affect
Stress
an adaptive response, mediated by individual characteristics and/or psychological processes, that is a consequence of any external action, situation, or event that places special physical and/or psychological demands upon a person
Stress is not merely ner
Stressors
are environmental factors that produce stress. Stated differently, stressors are a prerequisite to experiencing the stress response.
he most common examples of individual stressors are job demands, work overload, role conflict, role ambiguity, everyday ha
primary appraisal
results in categorizing a situation or stressor as irrelevant, positive, or stressful. Stress appraisals are obviously the most important in terms of our current discussion because they imply that a situation or stressor is perceived as harmful, threateni
secondary appraisal
occurs only in response to a stressful primary appraisal and entails an assessment of what might and can be done to reduce the level of perceived stress. During this evaluation a person considers which coping strategies are available and which ones are mo
control strategy
consists of using behaviors and cognitions to directly anticipate or solve problems.
A control strategy has a take-charge tone.
Examples include talking to your professor or boss about workload if you feel overwhelmed with your responsibilities, and confr
psychological detachment
not being involved in work-related activities, thoughts, or feelings during nonwork time.
These activities can include making phone calls, answering e-mail, thinking about projects and activities that must be completed in the near term, and just plain thi
escape strategy
amounts to avoiding the problem. Behaviors and cognitions are used to avoid or escape situations. Individuals use this strategy when they passively accept stressful situations or avoid them by failing to confront the cause of stress
symptom management strategy
consists of using methods such as relaxation, meditation, medication, or exercise to manage the symptoms of occupational stress.
Moderators of Occupational Stress
Managers with a working knowledge of important stress moderators can confront employee stress in the following ways:
1) Awareness of moderators helps identify those most likely to experience stress and its negative outcomes. Stress-reduction programs then
Social Support
Social support is the amount of perceived helpfulness derived from social relationships. Importantly, social support is determined by both the quantity and quality of an individual's social relationships. We receive four types of social support from other
Hardiness
collection of characteristics, referred to as hardiness, involves the ability to perceptually or behaviorally transform negative stressors into positive challenges. Hardiness embraces the personality dimensions of commitment, locus of control, and challen
Type A Behavior Pattern
is an action-emotion complex that can be observed in any person who is aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and if required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or persons
Stress Reduction Techniques
Organization
A system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more people.
Organizations are a social invention helping us to achieve things collectively that we could not achieve alone
Organizational Behavior (OB)
Interdisciplinary field dedicated to better understanding and managing people at work.
-Deals with how people act and react in organizations of all kinds.
-Research and application oriented
-3 Basic Levels: individual, group, organizational
OB-Related Skills (ticket to ride the virtuous career spiral)
Historical Perspective
The study of a subject in light of its earliest phases and subsequent evolution.
*The object is to sharpen one's vision of the present, not the past.
Human Relations Movement
Grew out of the Hawthorne studies; proposed that workers respond primarily to the social context of work including social conditioning, group norms and interpersonal dynamics; assumed that the managers concern for workers would lead to increased worker sa
McGregor's Theory X (Outdated)
McGregor's Theory Y (Modern)
Internet and Social Media Revolution
Because of _________ traditional media such as newspapers radio and television are less important for the younger generation
Principles of TQM
-Do it right the first time to eliminate costly rework and product recalls.
-Listen to and learn from customers and employees.
-Make continuous improvement an everyday matter.
-Build teamwork, trust, and mutual respect.
-The organization's culture is defi
Deming
85-15 rule.31 Specifically, when things go wrong, there is roughly an 85% chance the system (including management, machinery, and rules) is at fault. Only about 15% of the time is the individual employee at fault
e-business
using the Internet to facilitate every aspect of running a business, including the management of virtual teams
Human and Social Capital
HRM has become increasingly important as firms have come to realize the value of their human resources in improving productivity; its critical to the bottom line performance of the firm and the HR planning has become part of the strategic planning process
Human Capital
is the productive potential of an individual's knowledge and actions
Social Capital
productive potential resulting from strong relationships, goodwill, trust, and cooperative effort
Skills Exhibited by an Effective Manager
Management
the process of working with and through others to achieve organizational objectives, efficiently and ethically, in the face of constant change
-Dealing effectively with people is what management is all about.
-Managers with high skills mastery tend to hav
21st-Century Managers
-Teams are pushing aside the individual as the primary building block of organizations.
-Command-and-control management is giving way to participative management and empowerment.
-Ego-centered leaders are being replaced by customer-centered leaders.
-Empl
21st-Century Manager Evolution of
Contingency approach
calls for using management techniques in a situationally appropriate manner, instead of trying to rely on "one best way" or "one size fits all
Ethics
involves the study of moral issues and choices. It is concerned with right versus wrong, good versus bad, and the many shades of gray in supposedly black-and-white issues.
Corporate social responsibility (CSR)
The notion that corporations have an obligation to constituent groups in society other than stockholders and beyond that prescribed by law or union contract.
Carroll's Global Corporate Social Responsibility Pyramid
from the bottom up, advises organizations in the global economy to:
- Make a profit consistent with expectations for international businesses.
- Obey the law of host countries as well as international law.
- Be ethical in its practices, taking host-countr
Magnificent Seven: General Moral Principles for Managers
Whistle-blowing
occurs when an employee reports a perceived unethical and/or illegal activity to a third party such as government agencies, news media, or public-interest groups
morally attentive
meaning they faithfully consider the ethical implications of their actions and circumstances
A Topical Model for What Lies Ahead
meta-analysis
A statistical pooling technique that permits behavioral scientists to draw general conclusions about certain variables from many different studies.
It typically encompasses a vast number of subjects, often reaching the thousands.
Are instructive because t
Field Study
probes individual or group processes in an organizational setting. Because field studies involve real-life situations, their results often have immediate and practical relevance for managers.
Laboratory Study
variables are manipulated and measured in contrived situations. College students are commonly used as subjects.
Sample Survey
samples of people from specified populations respond to questionnaires. The researchers then draw conclusions about the relevant population. Generalizability of the results depends on the quality of the sampling and questioning techniques.
Case Study
an in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or organization, Because of their limited scope, case studies yield realistic but not very generalizable results.
Diversity
-represents the multitude of individual differences and similarities that exist among people
-pertains to the host of individual differences that make all of us unique and different from others
Diversity Layers
Reasonable Religious Accommodation
any adjustment to the work environment that will allow the employee to practice his religion. Examples of reasonable accommodation include: flexible scheduling, voluntary substitutions or swaps, job reassignments and lateral transfers, and modification of
Discrimination
occurs when employment decisions about an individual are due to reasons not associated with performance or are not related to the job. For example, organizations cannot discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, physica
Affirmative Action
an artificial intervention aimed at giving management a chance to correct an imbalance, an injustice, a mistake, or outright discrimination that occurred in the past. Affirmative action does not legitimize quotas. Quotas are illegal. They can only be impo
Managing Diversity
-entails enabling people to perform up to their maximum potential
-focuses on changing an organization's culture and infrastructure such that people provide the highest productivity possible
Workforce demographics
-statistical profiles of the characteristics and composition of the adult working population,
-enable managers to anticipate and adjust for surpluses or shortages of appropriately skilled individuals.
Glass ceiling
represents an absolute barrier or solid roadblock that prevents women from advancing to higher-level positions
Percentage Change in US Population by Race
Unfortunately, three additional trends suggest that current-day minority groups are experiencing their own glass ceiling. First, minorities in general are advancing less in the managerial and professional ranks than whites. Second, the number of race-base
Generational Differences
Managing Age-Related
The following seven initiatives can help to keep older workers engaged and committed to working.50
-Provide challenging work assignments that make a difference to the firm.
-Give the employee considerable autonomy and latitude in completing a task.
-Provi
Social categorization theory
-holds that similarities and differences are used as a basis for categorizing self and others into groups, with ensuing categorizations distinguishing between one's own in-group and one or more out-groups.
-People tend to like and trust in-group members m
Demographic Fault Line
as "hypothetical dividing lines that may split a group into subgroups based on one or more attributes.
Information/decision-making theory
proposes that diverse groups should outperform homogeneous groups.
Demographic fault line
-"hypothetical dividing lines that may split a group into subgroups based on one or more attributes."
-Fault lines form when work-group members possess varying demographic characteristics and negative interpersonal processes occur when people align themse
Barriers to implementing successful diversity programs:
Inaccurate stereotypes and prejudice.
Ethnocentrism
Poor career planning
A negative diversity climate
An unsupportive and hostile working environment for diverse employees
Lack of political savvy on the part of diverse employees
Difficulty in balancing ca
Diversity - A Process Model of
Diversity climate
Employees' aggregate perceptions about an organization's policies, practices, and procedures pertaining to diversity
Include/Exclude
an outgrowth of affirmative action programs. Its primary goal is to either increase or decrease the number of diverse people at all levels of the organizations.
Deny
People using this option deny that differences exist. Denial may manifest itself in proclamations that all decisions are color, gender, and age blind and that success is solely determined by merit and performance.
Assimilate
The basic premise behind this alternative is that all diverse people will learn to fit in or become like the dominant group. It only takes time and reinforcement for people to see the light. Organizations initially assimilate employees through their recru
Suppress
Differences are squelched or discouraged when using this approach. This can be done by telling or reinforcing others to quit whining and complaining about issues. The old "you've got to pay your dues" line is another frequently used way to promote the sta
Isolate
This option maintains the current way of doing things by setting the diverse person off to the side. In this way the individual is unable to influence organizational change. Managers can isolate people by putting them on special projects. Entire work grou
Tolerate
Toleration entails acknowledging differences but not valuing or accepting them. It represents a live-and-let-live approach that superficially allows organizations to give lip service to the issue of managing diversity. Toleration is different from isolati
Build Relationships
This approach is based on the premise that good relationships can overcome differences. It addresses diversity by fostering quality relationships�characterized by acceptance and understanding�among diverse groups
Foster Mutual Adaptation
people are willing to adapt or change their views for the sake of creating positive relationships with others. This implies that employees and management alike must be willing to accept differences and, most important, agree that everyone and everything i
Organizational culture
set of shared, taken-for-granted implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determines how it perceives, thinks about and reacts to its various environments
can impact employee motivation, satisfaction, and turnover
can be a source of competitive ad
Organizational Culture
The set of shared, taken-for-granted implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determines how it perceives, thinks about, and reacts to its various environments.
-passed on to new employees through the process of socialization
-operates at differen
Organizational Culture - Conceptual Framework for Understanding
Organizational Culture Layers
Basic assumptions:
Constitute organizational values that have become so taken for granted over time that they become assumptions that guide organizational behavior
*Observable artifacts, espoused values, and basic assumptions
Organizational Culture Layers - Observable artifacts
-consist of the physical manifestation of an organization's culture. Organizational examples include acronyms, manner of dress, awards, myths and stories told about the organization, published lists of values, observable rituals and ceremonies, special pa
Organizational Culture Layers - Espoused Values
-Values possess five key components. "Values (1) are concepts or beliefs, (2) pertain to desirable end-states or behaviors, (3) transcend situations, (4) guide selection or evaluation of behavior and events, and (5) are ordered by relative importance."7 I
Organizational Culture Layers - Basic Assumptions
unobservable and represent the core of organizational culture. They constitute organizational values that have become so taken for granted over time that they become assumptions that guide organizational behavior. They thus are highly resistant to change
Sustainability
represents "a company's ability to make a profit without sacrificing the resources of its people, the community, and the planet
PE Fit
PE fit is defined "as the compatibility between an individual and a work environment that occurs when their characteristics are well matched.
first must conduct an evaluation of your strengths, weaknesses, and values. Next, do the same for the company or
Four Functions of Organizational Culture
Give members an organizational identity.
Facilitate collective commitment.
Promote social system stability.
Shape behavior by helping members make sense of their surroundings.
Competing Values Framework
provides a practical way for managers to understand, measure, and change organizational culture
One axis pertains to whether an organization focuses its attention and efforts on internal dynamics and employees or outward toward its external environment an
Clan Culture
-A clan culture has an internal focus and values flexibility rather than stability and control. It resembles a family-type organization in which effectiveness is achieved by encouraging collaboration between employees. This type of culture is very "employ
Adhocracy Culture
has an external focus and values flexibility. This type of culture fosters the creation of innovative products and services by being adaptable, creative, and fast to respond to changes in the marketplace. Adhocracy cultures do not rely on the type of cent
Market Culture
has a strong external focus and values stability and control. Organizations with this culture are driven by competition and a strong desire to deliver results and accomplish goals. Because this type of culture is focused on the external environment, custo
Hierarchy Culture
-Control is the driving force
-has an internal focus, which produces a more formalized and structured work environment, and values stability and control over flexibility.
-leads to the development of reliable internal processes, extensive measurement, and
Outcomes Associated with Organizational Culture
1 - Clearly related to measures of organizational effectiveness.
2 - Employees are more satisfied and committed to organizations with clan cultures.
3 - Innovation and quality can be increased by building characteristics associated with clan, adhocracy, a
Process of Culture Change
Organizational members teach each other about the organization's preferred values, beliefs, expectations, and behaviors
four caveats about culture change.
First, leaders are the architects and developers of organizational culture, and managing organizatio
Vision
represents a long-term goal that describes "what" an organization wants to become.
Strategic Plan
outlines an organization's long-term goals and the actions necessary to achieve these goals
Culture Change in Organization
accomplished by using one or more of the following mechanisms:
-Formal statements of organizational philosophy, mission, vision, values, and materials used for recruiting, selection, and socialization.
-The design of physical space, work environments, and
Organizational Socialization
process by which a person learns the values, norms, and required behaviors which permit him to participate as a member of the organization
-turns outsiders into fully functioning insiders by promoting and reinforcing the organization's core values and bel
Socialization Mangement
five practical guidelines for managing organizational socialization
-effective onboarding programs resulted in increased retention, productivity, and rates of task completion for new hires.
- reinforce a culture that promotes ethical behavior. Managers ar
Socialization Tactics
Mentoring
the process of forming and maintaining developmental relationships between a mentor and a junior person
Mentoring can serve to embed an organization's culture when developers and the prot�g�/prot�g�e work in the same organization for two reasons. First, m
developmental relationships diversity of
reflects the variety of people within the network an individual uses for developmental assistance. There are two subcomponents associated with network diversity: (1) the number of different people the person is networked with and (2) the various social sy
Developmental relationship strength
reflects the quality of relationships among the individual and those involved in his or her developmental network
A receptive developmental network is composed of a few weak ties from one social system such as an employer or a professional association.
tr
developmental personal and organizational implications
five key personal implications to consider. First, it is important to foster a broad developmental network because the number and quality of your contacts will influence your career success. Second, job and career satisfaction are likely to be influenced
Societal culture
a set of beliefs and values about what is desirable and undesirable in a community of people, and a set of formal or informal practices to support the values
*Complex and multilayered
culture influences organizational behavior in two ways. Employees bring
Cultural Influences on Organizational Behavior
Societal culture is shaped by the various environmental factors listed in the left-hand side
Once inside the organization's sphere of influence, the individual is further affected by the organization's culture. Mixing of societal and organizational cultur
Ethnocentrism
belief that one's native country, culture, language, and behavior are superior to all others.
can effectively deal with ethnocentrism through education, greater cross-cultural awareness, international experience, and a conscious effort to value cultural d
Cultural intelligence
ability to interpret ambiguous cross-cultural situations correctly
the culturally intelligent person requires knowledge of culture and of the fundamental principles of cross-cultural interactions. This means knowing what culture is, how cultures vary, and
Contrasting High-Context and Low-Context Cultures
True to form, Germany has precise written rules for even the smallest details of daily life.39 In high-context cultures, agreements tend to be made on the basis of someone's word or a handshake, after a prolonged get-acquainted and trust-building period.
Avoiding cultural collisions
People on both sides of the context barrier must be trained to make adjustments.
A new employee should be greeted by a group consisting of his or her boss, several colleagues who have similar duties, and an individual located near the newcomer.
Background
GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness)
attempt to develop an empirically based theory to describe, understand, and predict the impact of specific cultural variables on leadership and organizational processes and the effectiveness of these processes
GLOBE Cultural Dimensions Rankings
The nine cultural dimensions from the GLOBE project are
Power distance. How much unequal distribution of power should there be in organizations and society?
Uncertainty avoidance. How much should people rely on social norms and rules to avoid uncertainty
Individualistic culture
characterized as "I" and "me" cultures, give priority to individual freedom and choice
emphasize personal responsibility for one's affairs. This is no small matter in an aging society:
Collectivist culture
oppositely called "we" and "us" cultures, rank shared goals higher than individual desires and goals
Collectivist cultures, oppositely called "we" and "us" cultures, rank shared goals higher than individual desires and goals. People in collectivist cultur
Monochronic time
revealed in the ordered, precise, schedule-driven use of public time that typifies and even caricatures efficient Northern Europeans and North Americans
Low-context cultures, such as in the United States, tend to run on monochronic time, while higher-cont
polychronic time
seen in the multiple and cyclical activities and concurrent involvement with different people in Mediterranean, Latin American, and especially Arab cultures
proxemics
the study of cultural expectations about interpersonal space
four interpersonal distance zones. Some call them space bubbles. They are intimate distance, personal distance, social distance, and public distance.
work-related value for each of five religious affiliations:
Catholic. Consideration ("Concern that employees be taken seriously, be kept informed, and that their judgments be used.")
Protestant. Employer effectiveness ("Desire to work for a company that is efficient, successful, and a technological leader.")
Buddh
Expatriate
refers to anyone living or working outside their home country.
Cross-cultural management
explains the behavior of people in organizations around the world and shows people how to work in organizations with employee and client populations from many different cultures."64 Historically, cross-cultural management research has focused almost exclu
Foreign Assignment Cycle
the first and last stages of the cycle occur at home. The middle two stages occur in the foreign or host country. Each stage hides an OB-related trouble spot that needs to be anticipated and neutralized. Otherwise, the bill for another failed foreign assi
Cross-cultural training
is any type of structured experience designed to help departing employees (and their families) adjust to a foreign culture. The trend is toward more such training in the United States.
Easiest. Predeparture training is limited to informational materials,
Cross-Cultural Competencies
Culture Shock
involves anxiety and doubt caused by an overload of unfamiliar expectations and social cues
The best defense against culture shock is comprehensive cross-cultural training, including intensive language study. Once again, the best way to pick up subtle�yet
organizational culture Outcomes associated with
1) Organizational culture is clearly related to measures of organizational effectiveness
2) Employees are more satisfied and committed to organizations with clan cultures
3) An organizations financial performance is not very strongly related to organizati
Individual Differences
variability among workers is substantial at all levels but increases dramatically with job complexity. In life insurance sales, for example, variability in performance is around six times as great as in routine clerical jobs
bridges between self-concept a
Self-concept
the concept the individual has of himself as a physical, social, and spiritual or moral being."10 In other words, because you have a self-concept, you recognize yourself as a distinct human being. A self-concept would be impossible without the capacity t
Cognitions
represent "any knowledge, opinion, or belief about the environment, about oneself, or about one's behavior."
those involving anticipation, introspection, planning, goal setting, evaluating, and setting personal standards are particularly relevant to OB.
Self-esteem
a belief about one's own self-worth based on an overall self-evaluation.
is measured by having survey respondents indicate their agreement or disagreement with both positive and negative statements.
increasing during young and middle adulthood, reaching a
Braden's Six Pillars of Self-Esteem
Self-Efficacy
a person's belief about his or her chances of successfully accomplishing a specific task.
-arises from the gradual acquisition of complex cognitive, social, linguistic, and/or physical skills through experience."
-role models can inspire us to build self-
Self-efficacy Model
would involve cognitive appraisal of the interaction between your perceived capability and situational opportunities and obstacles
People program themselves for success or failure by enacting their self-efficacy expectations
significant positive correlati
Self-monitoring
the extent to which a person observes his or her own self-expressive behavior and adapts it to the demands of the situation.
- High self-monitors are sometimes called chameleons, who readily adapt their self-presentation to their surroundings. Low self-mo
organizational identification
occurs when one comes to integrate beliefs about one's organization into one's identity
Personality
the combination of stable physical and mental characteristics that give the individual his or her identity.
These characteristics or traits�including how one looks, thinks, acts, and feels�are the product of interacting genetic and environmental influence
Personality Dimensions
Extraversion and conscientiousness were found to be the most stable of the Big Five
conscientiousness had the strongest positive correlation with job performance and training performance. how to help conscientious employees perform well. Specifically, the
Proactive personality
someone who is relatively unconstrained by situational forces and who effects environmental change.
positively associated with individual, team, and organizational success.
Internal Locus of Control
the belief that one controls the events and consequences affecting one's life
Proactive people identify opportunities and act on them, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs.
an "internal" tends to attribute positive ou
External Locus of Control
tend to attribute key outcomes in their lives to environmental causes, such as luck or fate
Personality Testing
Researchers, test developers, and organizations that administer personality assessments offer the following suggestions for getting started or for evaluating whether tests already in use are appropriate for forecasting job performance:
Determine what you
Ability
represents a broad and stable characteristic responsible for a person's maximum�as opposed to typical�performance on mental and physical tasks
Skill
the specific capacity to physically manipulate objects.
Among the many desirable skills and competencies in organizational life are written and spoken communication, initiative, decisiveness, tolerance, problem solving, adaptability, and resilience. Impor
Performance
Before moving on, we need to say something about a modern-day threat to abilities, skills, and general competence. That threat, according to public health officials, is sleep deprivation. only about four in 10�of the respondents from each ethnic group say
Intelligence
represents an individual's capacity for constructive thinking, reasoning, and problem solving
Charles Spearman proposed in 1927 that all cognitive performance is determined by two types of abilities. The first can be characterized as a general mental abil
emotions
complex, patterned, organismic reactions to how we think we are doing in our lifelong efforts to survive and flourish and to achieve what we wish for ourselves Lazarus's definition of emotions centers on a person's goals.
The word organismic is appropriat
emotional intelligence
the ability to manage oneself and one's relationships in mature and constructive ways. Referred to by some as EI and others as EQ, emotional intelligence is said to have four key components: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relations
Emotional Contagion
We, quite literally, can catch another person's bad mood or displayed negative emotions.
Emotional Labor
Smile, look happy for the customers," employees are told over and over. But what if the employee is having a rotten day
can be particularly detrimental to the employee performing the labor and can take its toll both psychologically and physically. Employe
Psychological Capital
Striving for success by developing one's self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resiliency.
[PsyCap is] an individual's positive psychological state of development and is characterized by:
(1) having confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and put in the necess
Resiliency
the ability to bounce back from major blows in life, can be developed through deliberate practice,
Deliberate Practice
It is activity designed specifically to improve performance, often with a teacher's help; it can be repeated a lot; feedback on results is continuously available; it's highly demanding mentally, whether the activity is purely intellectual, such as chess o
Wiseman's four guidelines for improving your luck:
Be active and involved. Be open to new experiences and networking with others to encounter more lucky chance opportunities.
Listen to your hunches about luck. Learn when to listen to your intuitive gut feelings. Meditation and mind-clearing activities can
Humility
a realistic assessment of one's own contribution and the recognition of the contribution of others, along with luck and good fortune that made one's own success possible
has been called the silent virtue
Humble individuals have a down-to-earth perspective
Schwartz's Value Theory
Schwartz believes that values are motivational in that they "represent broad goals that apply across contexts and time
Schwartz's Value Theory Continued
The circular pattern reveals which values are most strongly related and which ones are in conflict. In general, adjacent values like self-direction and universalism are positively related, whereas values that are further apart (e.g., self-direction and po
Intrapersonal Value Conflict
people are likely to experience inner conflict and stress when personal values conflict with each other. For employees who want balance in their lives, a stressful conflict can arise when one values
Therapists suggest that this type of value conflict can
Interpersonal Value Conflict
This type of value conflict often is at the core of personality conflicts, and such conflicts can negatively affect one's career
Individual-Organization Value Conflict
Conflict can occur when values espoused and enacted by the organization collide with employees' personal values. We defined this type of conflict as PE fit. PE fit represents the extent to which personal characteristics match those from a work environment
Work-Family Conflict
Family values involve enduring beliefs about the importance of family and who should play key family roles (e.g., child rearing, housekeeping, and income earning). Work values center on the relative importance of work and career goals in one's life.
-Valu
Attitude
defined as "a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object
While values represent global beliefs that influence behavior across all situations, attitudes relate only to behavior directe
Cognitive dissonance
psychological discomfort a person experiences when his or her attitudes or beliefs are incompatible with his or her behavior
people will seek to reduce the "dissonance," or psychological tension, through one of three main methods:
Change your attitude or
Intention Determinants of
Attitude toward the behavior
the degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation or appraisal of the behavior in question.
Subjective norm
refers to the perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the behavior
the degree of p
Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behavior
Ajzen ultimately developed and refined a model focusing on intentions as the key link between attitudes and planned behavior
Importantly, this model only predicts behavior under an individual's control, not behavior due to circumstances beyond one's contr
Organizational commitment
reflects the extent to which an individual identifies with an organization and is committed to its goals.
-Affective commitment refers to the employee's emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization. Employees with a st
Employee Engagement
the harnessing of organization members' selves to their work roles; in engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role performance."
The essence of this definition is the idea that engaged employees
Psychological contracts
represent an individual's perception about the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange between him- or herself and another party.
In a work environment, the psychological contract represents an employee's beliefs about what he or she is entitled to
Job Satisfaction
an affective or emotional response toward various facets of one's job. This definition implies job satisfaction is not a unitary concept. Rather, a person can be relatively satisfied with one aspect of his or her job and dissatisfied with one or more othe
Job Satisfaction Causes of
Need fulfillment - extent to which the characteristics of a job allow an individual to fulfill his or her needs
Discrepancies - satisfaction is a result of met expectations. Met expectations represent the difference between what an individual expects to r
Job Satisfaction - Correlates of
The relationship between job satisfaction and these other variables is either positive or negative. The strength of the relationship ranges from weak (very little relationship) to strong. Strong relationships imply that managers can significantly influenc
Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs)
consist of employee behaviors that are beyond the call of duty.
Examples include "such gestures as constructive statements about the department, expression of personal interest in the work of others, suggestions for improvement, training new people, respe
Withdrawal Cognitions
encapsulate this thought process by representing an individual's overall thoughts and feelings about quitting
counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs)
types of behavior that harm employees, the organization as a whole, or organizational stakeholders such as customers and shareholder. Examples of CWBs include theft, gossiping, backstabbing, drug and alcohol abuse, destroying organizational property, viol
Vulnerability
discussing one's weaknesses or limitations
When teammates feel free to admit mistakes, ask for help, and acknowledge their own weaknesses, they reduce divisive politics and build a bond of trust more valuable than almost any strategic advantage
Perception
cognitive process that enables us to interpret and understand our surroundings
Recognition of objects is one of this process's major functions
The study of how people perceive one another has been labeled social cognition and social information processing
Interpretation
The reciprocal process of perception
social cognition/social information processing
is the study of how people make sense of other people and themselves. It focuses on how ordinary people think about people and how they think they think about people.
Three of the stages in this model�selective attention/comprehension, encoding and simpli
Implicit cognition
Implicit cognition represents any thoughts or beliefs that are automatically activated from memory without our conscious awareness. The existence of implicit cognition leads people to make biased decisions without an understanding that it is occurring
Good leaders were perceived as exhibiting the following behaviors:
(1) assigning specific tasks to group members, (2) telling others that they had done well, (3) setting specific goals for the group, (4) letting other group members make decisions, (5) trying to get the group to work as a team, and (6) maintaining definit
Stereotype
An individual's set of beliefs about the characteristics or attributes of a group
Not always negative
May or may not be accurate
Stereotyping is a four-step process.
1 - categorizing people into groups according to various criteria, such as gender, age, r
sex-role stereotype
is the belief that differing traits and abilities make men and women particularly well suited to different roles. These stereotypes have been found to influence our perceptions of women as leaders.
(1) people often prefer male bosses
(2) women have a hard
Age sterotypes
reinforce age discrimination because of their negative orientation.
Long-standing age stereotypes depict older workers as less satisfied, not as involved with their work, less motivated, not as committed
Micro aggressions
biased thoughts, attitudes, and feelings" that exist at an unconscious level
Stereotype threat
refers to the 'predicament' in which members of a social group (e.g., African Americans, women) 'must deal with the possibility of being judged or treated stereotypically, or of doing something that would confirm the stereotype
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The Pygmalion Effect
that someone's high expectations for another person result in high performance for that person
The key process underlying both the Pygmalion and Galatea effects is the idea that people's expectations or beliefs determine their behavior and performance, th
Galatea effect
occurs when an individual's high self-expectations for him- or herself lead to high performance.
Golem Effect
a loss in performance resulting from low leader expectations
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The Pygmalion Effect - managers can create positive performance expectations.
Recognize that everyone has the potential to increase his or her performance.
Set high performance goals.
Positively reinforce employees for a job well done.
Provide frequent feedback that conveys a belief in employees' ability to complete their tasks.
Gi
causal attributions
are suspected or inferred causes of behavior.
Generally speaking, people formulate causal attributions by considering the events preceding an observed behavior.
Kelley's Model of Attribution
Behavior can be attributed either to:
Internal factors within a person (such as ability) or:
External behavior within the environment (such as a difficult task)
*It is important to remember that consensus relates to other people, distinctiveness relates t
Fundamental Attribution Bias
reflects one's tendency to attribute another person's behavior to his or her personal characteristics, as opposed to situational factors. This bias causes perceivers to ignore important environmental forces that often significantly affect behavior.
Self-Serving Bias
represents one's tendency to take more personal responsibility for success than for failure. The self-serving bias suggests employees will attribute their success to internal factors (high ability or hard work) and their failures to uncontrollable externa
Motivation
psychological processes that cause the arousal, direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed
Content theories of motivation focus on identifying internal factors such as instincts, needs, satisfaction, and job characteristics tha
Needs
Needs are physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior. They can be strong or weak and are influenced by environmental factors. Thus, human needs vary over time and place. The general idea behind need theories of motivation is that unm
Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory
These needs are
Physiological. Most basic need. Entails having enough food, air, and water to survive.
Safety. Consists of the need to be safe from physical and psychological harm.
Love. The desire to be loved and to love. Contains the needs for affection
Alderfer's ERG Theory
*existence needs (E)�the desire for physiological and materialistic well-being;
*relatedness needs (R)�the desire to have meaningful relationships with significant others;
*growth needs (G)�the desire to grow as a human being and to use one's abilities to
McClelland's Need Theory
*Need for achievement
Desire to accomplish something difficult.
Achievement-motivated people share three common characteristics: (1) they prefer working on tasks of moderate difficulty; (2) they prefer situations in which performance is due to their effor
Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Model
Herzberg found separate and distinct clusters of factors associated with job satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
Job satisfaction was more frequently associated with achievement, recognition, characteristics of the work, responsibility, and advancement. The
Adams's Equity Theory of Motivation
a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships. As a process theory of motivation, equity theory explains how an individual's motivation to behave in a certain way is fuele
Distributive justice
reflects the perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed or allocated
Procedural justice
defined as the perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions
interactional justice
relates to the "quality of the interpersonal treatment people receive when procedures are implemented." This form of justice does not pertain to the outcomes or procedures associated with decision making, but rather it focuses on whether or not people fee
Vroom's Expectancy Theory
Motivation boils down to the decision of how much effort to exert in a specific task situation. Generally, expectancy theory can be used to predict motivation and behavior in any situation in which a choice between two or more alternatives must be made. F
Goal
what an individual is trying to accomplish; it is the object or aim of an action
-direct attention
-regulate effort
-increase persistence
-foster the development and application of task strategies and action plans
Goal Setting Practical Insights
Specific high goals lead to greater performance. Goal specificity pertains to the quantifiability of a goal. people demonstrated that performance was greater when people had specific high goals.50
Feedback enhances the effect of specific, difficult goals.
Job Design
also referred to as job redesign, "refers to any set of activities that involve the alteration of specific jobs or interdependent systems of jobs with the intent of improving the quality of employee job experience and their on the-job productivity
Job Design Top Down Approaches
management is responsible for creating efficient and meaningful combinations of work tasks for employees. If done correctly, the theory is that employees will display higher performance, job satisfaction, and employee engagement, and lower absenteeism and
Scientific Management
that kind of management which conducts a business or affairs by standards established by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment, or reasoning. The application of scientific management involves the following five steps: (1) devel
Job enlargement
Involves putting more variety into a worker's job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty.
Some call this horizontally loading the job
Job rotation
moving employees from one specialized job to another
Job Enrichment
Job enrichment is the practical application of Frederick Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory of job satisfaction
entails modifying a job such that an employee has the opportunity to experience achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, an
Job Characteristics Model
In general terms, core job dimensions are common characteristics found to a varying degree in all jobs. Three of the job characteristics shown combine to determine experienced meaningfulness of work:
Skill variety. The extent to which the job requires an
Intrinsic motivation
occurs when an individual is "turned on to one's work because of the positive internal feelings that are generated by doing well, rather than being dependent on external factors (such as incentive pay or compliments from the boss) for the motivation to wo
Bottom-Up Approaches
this approach to job design is driven by employees rather than managers and is referred to as job crafting.
job crafting
the physical and cognitive changes individuals make in the task or relational boundaries of their work
job crafting is limited by the amount of latitude people have in changing their own jobs.
Idiosyncratic Deals (I-Deals)
a middle ground between top-down and bottom-up methods and attempts to overcome their limitations
Idiosyncratic deals (i-deals) represent "employment terms individuals negotiate for themselves, taking myriad forms from flexible schedules to career develop
Under Management"
Only 1 out of 100 managers provides every direct report with these five basics every day:
Performance requirements and standard operating procedures related to tasks and responsibilities.
Defined parameters, measurable goals, and concrete deadlines for all work assignments for which the direct report will be held accountable.
Accurate monitori
Performance management
an organization-wide system whereby managers integrate the activities of goal setting, monitoring and evaluating, providing feedback and coaching, and rewarding employees on a continuous basis
Organizational behavior (OB) can shed valuable light on key as
Employees with a clear line of sight
understand the organization's strategic goals and know what actions they need to take, both individually and as team members.
Performance Outcome Goal
targets a specific end result
But for employees who lack the necessary skills, performance outcome goals are more frustrating than motivating. When skills are lacking, a developmental process is needed wherein learning goals precede performance outcome go
Learning Goal
strives to improve creativity and develop skills
When skills are lacking, a developmental process is needed wherein learning goals precede performance outcome goals.
Management by Objectives
a management system that incorporates participation into decision making, goal setting, and objective feedback. The central idea of MBO, getting individual employees to "own" a piece of a collective effort
Managing the Goal-Setting Process - Step 1: Set Goals
SMART is an acronym for specific, measurable, attainable, results oriented, and time bound.
There are two additional recommendations for Step 1. First, for complex tasks, employees need to be trained in problem-solving techniques and developing performanc
Managing the Goal-Setting Process - Step 2: Promote Goal Commitment
Goal commitment can be enhanced by following these guidelines:
Explain why the organization is committed to a comprehensive goal-setting program.
Create clear lines of sight by clarifying the corporate goals and linking the individual's goals to them. "Th
Managing the Goal-Setting Process - Step 3: Provide Support and Feedback
Practical guidelines include the following:
Make sure each employee has the necessary skills and information to reach his or her goals. As a pair of goal-setting experts succinctly stated, "Motivation without knowledge is useless."26 Training often is req
Feedback
objective information about individual or collective performance.
Subjective assessments such as "You're doing a poor job," "You're lazy," or "We really appreciate everyone's hard work" do not qualify as objective feedback. But hard data such as units sol
Feedback Practical Lessons
The acceptance of feedback should not be treated as a given; it is often misperceived or rejected. This is especially true in intercultural situations.
Managers can enhance their credibility as sources of feedback by developing their expertise and creatin
Feedback Trouble Signs
360-degree feedback
involves letting individuals compare their own perceived performance with behaviorally specific (and usually anonymous) performance information from their manager, subordinates, and peers. Even outsiders may be involved in what is sometimes called full-ci
Feedback for Coaching Purposes and Organizational Effectiveness
Focus on performance, not personalities.
Give specific feedback linked to learning goals and performance outcome goals.
Channel feedback toward key result areas for the organization.
Give feedback as soon as possible.
Give feedback to coach improvement, n
Organizational Reward Systems
Extrinsic Rewards
Financial, material, and social rewards qualify as extrinsic rewards because they come from the environment.
An employee who works to obtain extrinsic rewards, such as money or praise, is said to be extrinsically motivated.
Intrinsic Rewards
Psychic rewards, however, are intrinsic rewards because they are self-granted.
One who derives pleasure from the task itself or experiences a sense of competence or self-determination is said to be intrinsically motivated
Reward Distribution Criteria
three general criteria for the distribution of rewards are as follows:
Performance: results. Tangible outcomes such as individual, group, or organization performance; quantity and quality of performance.
Performance: actions and behaviors. Such as teamwor
Thomas's Building Blocks for Intrinsic Rewards and Motivation