Group:
two or more individuals interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives
Formal group:
A designated work group defined by an organization's structure with designated work assignments establishing tasks
Informal group:
Neither formally structures nor organizationally determined; such a group appears in response to the need for social contact
Social Identity Theory:
Perspective that considers when and why individuals consider themselves members of groups.
Social identities
help people reduce uncertainty about who they are and what they should do. We develop many identities through the course of our lives
Social Identity Theory
This theory proposes that people have emotional reactions to the failure/success of their group because their self-esteem gets tied to the group's performance
Ingroup favoritism:
Perspective in which we see members of our ingroup as better than other people, and people not in our group as all the same (this can lead to stereotyping)
Similarity:
Individuals with same values will have higher levels of group identification. Same goes for demographic similarity.
Distinctiveness:
People tend to notice identities that show how they are different from other groups
Status:
People use identities to define themselves and increase their self-esteem, so they tend to link themselves to high-status groups
Uncertainty reduction:
membership in a group helps people understand who they are and how they fit in the world
Characteristics that make social identity important to an individual:
similarity, distinctiveness, status, uncertainty reduction
Five-Stage group-development model:
Useful framework for understanding group development. This model shows the five distinct stages that groups go through:
Forming stage:
This stage of group development is characterized by much uncertainty about the group's purpose, structure, and leadership
Storming stage:
Storming stage: This stage is characterized by intra-group conflict mainly about control and hierarchy of leadership
Norming stage:
Group structure solidifies and close relationships are evident. Group demonstrates cohesiveness. A common set of expectations of correct member behavior has been assimilated.
Performing stage:
Group is fully functional. Group is focused on task at hand (last stage for permanent groups)
Five-Stage group-development model stages
forming stage, storming stage, norming stage, performing stage & adjourning stage
Adjourning stage:
Final stage for temporary groups. Characterized by wrapping up activities and preparing to disband
PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM MODEL: AN ALTERNATIVE MODEL FOR GROUPS WITH DEADLINES
A set of phases that temporary groups go through that involves transitions between inertia and activity
PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM MODEL steps
1) 1ST meeting sets the group direction, and framework of behavioral patterns
2) 1st phase is characterized by group inertia
3) A transition takes place when the group reaches the half way point of its allocated time
4)Major changes are initiated
5) 2nd p
Role:
Defined as a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. We are all required a diverse number of roles in our life (personal and professional)
Role Perception:
An individual's view of how she or he is supposed to act in a given situation. We get role perception from stimuli around us (Primary reason for apprenticeship programs)
Role expectation:
How others believe a person should act in a given situation.
psychological contract,
At work, we enter into a which sets mutual expectations. What managers expect from workers and vice versa
Role conflict:
A situation in which the individual is confronted by divergent role expectations.
Role conflict
A great deal of research demonstrates that conflict between the work and family roles is one of the most significant sources of stress for most employees
Norms:
Defined as acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group's members that express what ought to and what ought not to do under certain circumstances
Norms can be:
performance norms
appearance norms
social arrangement norms
resource allocation norms
Performance norms:
Providing explicit cues about how hard members should work, what the output should be, how to get the work done, appropriate levels of tardiness, etc.
Appearance norms:
Dress codes, unspoken rules about when to look busy, etc.
Social arrangement norms
With whom to eat lunch, whether to form friendships outside the workplace, etc.
Resource allocation norms:
Assignment of difficult jobs, distribution of resources, such as pay or equipment
Conformity:
The adjustment of one's behavior to align with the norms of the group.
Reference groups
are important groups to which individuals belong to or hope to belong and whose norms individuals are more likely to conform. The implication is that all groups do not impose equal conformity pressures on their members
Deviant workplace behavior:
Voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and, in doing so, threatens the well being of the organization or its members.
Typology of deviant behavior in the workplace:
Production
Property
Political
Personal Aggression
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Socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. Even the smallest group develops roles, rights, rituals to differentiate members.
Status Characteristic theory:
States that differences in status characteristics create hierarchies within groups
Status Characteristic theory: Status tends to derive from one of three sources:
The power a person wields over others
A person's ability to contribute to a group's goals
An individual's personal characteristics
Status and Norms:
High status individuals are often given more freedom to deviate from norms than are other group members
Status and group interaction:
High status people tend to be more assertive, outspoken group members. This can lead to less diversity in the group in lower status people's abilities and insights are overlooked or underutilized
Status Inequity:
members need to agree that the status hierarchy is equitable. If perceived inequity exists, it can lead to resentment, poorer individual performance, or higher intentions to leave the group.
Social loafing
is the tendency of individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than alone. It is also more consistent with individualistic cultures such as the United States or Canada, which are dominated by self-interest.
Causes for social loafing:
The belief that others in the group do not carry their own share.
Or
It can be the result of dispersion of responsibility
So, when managers use collective work situations to enhance morale and teamwork, they should also identify individual efforts
Research by German psychologist Max Ringelmann
shows that group performance increases with group size, but the addition of new members has diminishing returns on productivity
Ways to prevent social loafing include:
*Set group goals so members have a common goal to strive for
*Increase intergroup competition
*Engage in peer evaluation
*Select members who have high motivation and prefer to work in groups
*If possible base group's rewards in part on each other's unique
Cohesiveness
It is the degree to which group members are attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group
Ways to make the group more cohesive:
*Make the group smaller
*Encourage agreement with group's goals
*Increase the time members spend together
*Increase the group status and the perceived difficulty of attaining membership
*Stimulate competition with other groups
*Give rewards to the group r
Diversity
is the extent to which members of the group are similar to, or different from one another.
Groupthink
Refers to situations in which consensus and pressures for conformity override the realistic appraisal of alternative courses and the full expression of deviant, minority, or unpopular views. This can dramatically hinder performance.
Groupshift
(Also known as group polarization): Phenomenon that appears to happen when discussion leads members towards a more extreme view of the position that they already held.