motivation
intensity of a person's desire to begin or continue engaging in the pursuit of a goal
law of individual differences
people have different abilities, needs, personalities, values, and self-concepts
theory x
belief that most people dislike work and will try to avoid it whenever possible
theory y
belief that people can enjoy responsibility and work, and are able to make good decisions and exercise self-direction
job characteristics
attributes that describe the nature of the work
work environment
constellation of an organization's rules, management practices, policies, and reward systems
existance needs
desires for physical and material well-being, including nutritional and material requirements
related needs
desires for respect from and relationships with others
growth needs
desire to make useful and productive contributions and to have opportunities for personal development
hygiene factors
factors such as pay, status and working conditions that produce an acceptable work environment and whose absence leads to dissatisfaction
motivators
factors intrinsic to the job that can drive an employee to pursue excellence and whose presence increases satisfaction
motivators (examples)
work itself, advancement, achievement, responsibility, growth, recognition
hygiene factors (examples)
working conditions, pay, supervision, status, company policies and administration, interpersonal relations w/ colleagues
need for affiliation
wanting to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with others
need for achievement
wanting to do something better or more efficiently to solve problems, or to master complex tasks
need for power
wanting to control and influence others, or to be responsible for others
empowerment
the degree to which an employee has the authority to make and implement at least some decisions
job design
design jobs to provide different opportunities to fulfill those needs
job characteristics model
objective characteristics of the job itself, including skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and task feedback, lead to job satisfaction for people with a high growth need strength
skill variety
degree to which the job requires a variety of activities enabling the worker to use different skills and talents
task identity
degree to which the job requires the worker to complete a whole and identifiable piece of work
task significance
degree to which the job gives the worker freedom, discretion, and independence in scheduling the work and determining how to do the work
task feedback
degree tow which carrying out the job's required activities results in the individual's obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performances
growth need strength
derived rom our motivational preferences, such as desire for advancement, identified things that motivate us
job-person match
comparing job's motivating potential to our growth need strength to identify if it's a good match
three psychological states that can occur in employees
1. experienced meaningfulness of work
2. experienced responsibility for work outcomes
3. knowledge of results of work activities
job enrichment
an approach to job design that increases a job's complexity to give workers greater responsibility and opportunities to feel a sense of achievement
job enlargement
adding more tasks at the same level of responsibility and skill related to an employee's current position
job characteristics (examples)
skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, feedback
Job characteristics outcomes
high motivation
high performance
high satisfactions
job rotation
workers are moved through a variety of jobs to increase their interest and motivation
cross-training
training employees in more than one job or in multiple skills to enable them to do different jobs
self-efficacy
a person's confidence in his or her ability to organize and execute the courses of action necessary to accomplish a specific task
magnitude
beliefs about how difficult a task can be accomplished
strength
beliefs about how confident the person that the task can be accomplished
generality
beliefs about the degree to which similar tasks can be accomplished
Vroom's Valence, Instrumentality, and Expectancy (VIW) Theory
when someone wants a raise or promotion enough to feel motivated to do their job well but they feel their best efforts will not lead to a raise or promotion
valence
will the rewards i receive be the things i care about?
instrumentality
if my performance is strong, will I receive my rewards?
expectancy
if you work hard and put in good effort, will you reach your desired performance?
Managers can influence valence, instrumentality and expectancy by:
-administering rewards that are highly valued (valence)
-linking rewards to performance (instrumentality)
-enhancing employees' perceptions that they can perform well (expectancy)
fairness
how fairly we feel we are being treated influences our trust and motivation
what do fairness perceptions affect?
motivation, job performance, satisfaction, organizational commitment, withdraw behaviors, counterproductive behaviors (stealing)
how can managers improve fairness?
1. change fairness of the situation
2. change how employees perceive the fairness of the situation
Learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs because of experience
Reinforcement theory
3 laws
-law of effect
-law of recency
-law of exercise
law of effect
people tend not to engage in behavior that does not result in a reward
law or recency
most recent consequence of a behavior is likely to govern the recurrence of that behavior
law of exercise
repetition strengthens the association between cause and effect
reinforcers
anything that makes a behavior more likely to happen again
positive reinforcement
use of rewards to increase the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated (like performance bonuses or praise) -- motivate a certain behavior
negative reinforcement
removal of current or future unpleasant consequences to increase the likelihood that someone will repeat a behavior
when is negative reinforcement appropriate?
when an employee perceives something undesirable and the manager wants to increase the priceable of certain types of behaviors
expectancy theory equation
motivational force = expectancy x instrumentality x valence
punishment
application of negative outcomes to decrease the likelihood of a behavior (like cutting work hours of low-performing employees)
extinction
removal of any reinforcement (positive or negative) following the occurrence of the behavior to be extinguished to decrease the likelihood of that behavior
When is extinction appropriate?
when a manages realizes he or she has been rewarding the wrong thing and the manager wants to stop the behavior
behavior modification
gives managers a way to apply reinforcement theory to motivate workers
two issues in using behavior modification
1. type of reinforcement (reward or punishment)
2. schedule of reinforcement
continuous reinforcement schedule
desired behavior is reinforced each time that it occurs
partial reinforcement schedule
desired behavior is reinforced only part of the time
types of partial reinforcement schedules:
-fixed-ratio
-fixed-interval
-variable-ratio
-variable-interval
fixed-ratio
-desired behavior is reinforced after a specified number of correct responses
fixed-interval
desired behavior is reinforced after a certain amount of time has passed
variable-ratio
desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredicted number of behaviors
variable-interval
desired behavior s reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed
continuous reinforcement
fastest way to get someone to learn; BUT as soon as reward is stopped -- desired behavior decreases frequently (extinction occurs)
variable reinforcement
-most effective schedule for sustaining behavior
-reinforcing the desired behavior every few times it occurs
5 Steps of Behavior Modification
1. define the problem
2. identify and define specific behavior(s) you wish to change
3. record & track occurrence of target behavior
4. analyze current negative consequences & arrange for more positive consequences to follow desired behavior
5. evaluate w
merit pay
salary increase, usually permanent, given because of an individual's performance
spot awards
-most consistent with reinforcement theory
-given immediately, on the spot, as soon as desired behavior is seen