Pollution
the release of matter or energy into the environment that causes undesirable impacts on the health and well-being of humans or other organisms.
Point-Source Pollution
discrete locations of pollution (factory or sewer pipes)
Non-Point Source Pollution
pollution from multiple cumulative inputs over a large area (Farms, cities, streets, neighborhoods)
Biological indicators of water quality
presence of fecal coliform bacteria and other disease-causing organisms
Chemical indicators of water quality
pH, nutrient concentration, taste, odor, hardness, dissolved oxygen
Physical indicators of water quality
turbidity, color, temperature
Toxic Chemicals
From natural and synthetic sources (Pesticides, petroleum products, synthetic chemicals, Arsenic, lead, mercury, acid rain, acid drainage from mines)
Effects include: poisoning animals and plants, altering aquatic ecosystems, and affecting human health
So
Sediment Pollution
can impair aquatic ecosystems
(Clear-cutting, mining, poor cultivation practices)
Dramatically changes aquatic habitats, and fish may not survive
Solutions: better management of farms and forests; avoid large-scale disturbance of vegetation
Thermal Pollution
Warmer water holds less oxygen, Water that is too cold causes problems.
Nutrient Pollution
from fertilizers, farms, sewage, lawns, golf courses, Leads to eutrophication
Solutions: Phosphate-free detergents
Pathogens and waterborne diseases
Enters water supply via inadequately treated human waste and animal waste via feedlots
Causes more human health problems than any other type of water pollution
Groundwater
increasingly contaminated, but is hidden from view
Difficult to monitor
Out of sight, out of mind
Retains contaminants for decades and longer
Takes longer for contaminants to breakdown in groundwater because of the lower dissolved oxygen levels
Sources of Groundwater Pollution
Toxic chemicals that occur naturally and pollution from human causes.
Clean Water Act
Illegal to discharge pollution without a permit
Standards for industrial wastewater
Funded sewage treatment plants
Wastewater
water that has been used by people in some way.
Septic Systems
the most popular method of wastewater disposal in rural areas (Underground tanks separate solids and oils from wastewater)
Primary treatment
the physical removal of contaminants in settling tanks (clarifiers)
Secondary treatment
water is stirred and aerated so aerobic bacteria degrade organic pollutants.
Plastic
non-biodegradable
Drifts for decades
Washes up on beaches
Wildlife eat it or get entangled and die
Marine Debris
affects people
Equipment damage
U.S. Oil Pollution Act of 1990
Creates a $1 billion prevention and cleanup fund
Requires all ships have double hulls by 2015
Oil Pollution
Most comes from small sources
Boat leakage and runoff from land
Naturally occurring leaks from the seabed
Mercury Contamination
From coal combustion and other sources
Bioaccumulates and biomagnifies
Dangerous to young children and pregnant or nursing mothers
Avoid eating swordfish, shark, and albacore tuna
Eat seafood low in mercury (catfish, salmon, canned light tuna)
Harmful algal blooms
nutrients increase populations of algae that produce powerful toxins
Red tide
algal species produce reddish pigments that discolor water
Illness and death to wildlife and humans
Economic losses to fishing industries and beach tourism
Air pollutants
gases and particulate material added to the atmosphere
Air pollution
the release of pollutants into the air
Outdoor (ambient) air pollution
pollution outside
Has recently decreased due to government policy and improved technologies in developed countries
Dust storms
Hundreds of millions of tons of dust are blown westward across the Atlantic Ocean by trade winds every year, Unsustainable farming and grazing, erosion and desertification
Aerosols
reflect sunlight back into space and cool the atmosphere and surface
Fires
Pollutes atmosphere with soot and gases
Primary Pollutants
Cause harm as emitted (soot and co2)
Secondary Pollutants
Cause harm after reaction (tropospheric ozone and sulfuric acid)
Clean Air Act of 1970
Sets standards for air quality, limits on emissions
Provides funds for pollution-control research
Allows citizens to sue parties violating the standards
Clean Air Act of 1990
Strengthens standards for auto emissions, toxic air pollutants, acidic deposition, stratospheric ozone depletion
Introduced emissions trading
Criteria Pollutants
pollutants judged to pose especially great threats to human health
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
A colorless, odorless gas
Produced primarily by incomplete combustion of fuel
Poses risk to humans and animals, even in small concentrations
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
colorless gas with a strong odor
Coal emissions from electricity generation and industry
Can form acid precipitation
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
highly reactive, foul smelling reddish brown gas
Nitrogen Oxide (NOX)
nitrogen and oxygen react at high temperatures
Vehicle engine and industrial combustion, electrical utilities
Contributes to smog and acid precipitation
Tropospheric Ozone (O3)
a colorless gas with a strong odor
A secondary pollutant
Results from interactions of sunlight, heat, nitrogen oxides, and volatile carbons
A major component of smog
Poses a health risk as a result of its instability
Particulate Matter
solid or liquid particles suspended in the atmosphere
Primary pollutants: dust and soot
Secondary pollutants: sulfates and nitrates
Damages respiratory tissue when inhaled
Most is wind-blown dust
Lead
particulate pollutant added to gas and used in industrial metal smelting
Bioaccumulates and causes nervous system malfunction
Banned in gasoline in developed, but not in developing countries
Scrubbers
technologies that chemically convert or physically remove pollutants before they leave the smokestacks
Decline in U.S. Pollution
Cleaner-burning vehicles and catalytic converters decrease carbon monoxide
Permit-trading programs and clean coal technologies reduce SO2 emissions
Toxic Air Pollutants
substances known to cause cancer; reproductive defects; or neurological, development, immune system, or respiratory problems
Some are produced naturally: hydrogen sulfide
Most are produced by humans: smelting, sewage treatment, industry
Clear Skies Initiative
establishes a market-based can-and-trade program for some pollutants.
Smog
unhealthy mixtures of air pollutants over urban areas
Industrial Smog
industries burn coal or oil (gray air)
Occurs in cooler, hilly areas.
Photochemical Smog
Produced by a series of reactions (brown air)
Hot, sunny cities surrounded by mountains
Light-driven reactions of primary pollutants and normal atmospheric compounds
Morning traffic exhaust releases pollutants
Irritates eyes, noses, and throats
Ozone Layer
ozone in the lower stratosphere
12 ppm concentrations effectively block incoming damaging ultraviolet radiation
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
chemicals that attack ozone
1 million metric tons/year were produced
Releases chlorine atoms that split ozone
Ozone Hole
ozone levels over Antarctica had declined by 40-60%
Depletion also in the Arctic and globally
Causes skin cancer, harms crops and decreases ocean productivity
Montreal Protocol
180 nations agreed to cut CFC production in half
Follow-up agreements deepened cuts, advanced timetables and addresses other ozone-depleting chemicals
Today, production and use of ozone-depleting chemicals has decreased 95%
The ozone layer is beginning to
Acid Deposition
the deposition of acid, or acid-forming pollutants, from the atmosphere onto Earth's surface
Acid Rain
precipitation of acid, caused by a reaction between sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide.
Atmospheric Deposition
the wet or dry deposition on land of pollutants
Effects of Acid Deposition
Nutrients are leached from topsoil
Soil chemistry is changed
Metal ions (aluminum, zinc, etc.) are converted into soluble forms that pollute water
Widespread tree mortality
Affects surface water and kills fish
Damages agricultural crops
Erodes stone build
Asbestos
Source: pipe insulation Health Effects: lung cancer
Nitrogen Oxides
Source: Unvented stoves and heaters Health Effects: Respiratory Problems
Radon
Source: Rocks and soil beneath house. Health Effects: Lung Cancer
Volatile Organic Compounds
Source: Computers and office equipment, gasoline. Health effects: Irritation and cancer.
Carbon Monoxide
Source: Leaky gas or furnaces. Health effects: Neural impairment.
Formaldehyde
Source: Furniture and carpets. health effects: Respiratory irritation
Chloroform
Source: Hot showers with chlorine water. health effects: Nervous system damage.
Lead
Source: Old Paint. Health Effects: Nervous system and organ damage.
Sick Building Syndrome
A condition associated with an indoor environment that appears to be unhealthy
Waste
any unwanted material or substance that results from
human activity or process
Municipal Solid Waste
non-liquid waste that comes from homes,
institutions, and small businesses
Industrial Solid Waste
waste from production of consumer
goods, mining, agriculture, and petroleum extraction and refining
Hazardous Waste
solid or liquid waste that is toxic, chemically
reactive, flammable, or corrosive
Recycling
sends used goods to manufacture new
goods
Composting
recovery of organic waste
Sanitary Landfills
waste buried in the ground or piled in large, engineered mounds
Must meet national standards set by the EPA under the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976
Waste is partially decomposed by bacteria and compresses
under its own weight to ma
Incineration
a controlled process in which mixed garbage is
burned at very high temperatures
Waste-to-energy facilities
use the heat
produced by waste combustion to create electricity
More than 100 facilities are in use across the U.S.
They can process nearly 100,000 tons of waste per day
But, they take many years to become profitable
Landfill gas
a mix of gases that consists of roughly
half methane
Source Reduction
preventing waste generation in
the first place
Materials Recovery Facilities
workers and machines
sort items, then clean, shred and prepare them for reprocessing
Industrial Waste
waste from
factories, mining, agriculture,
petroleum extraction, etc.
Industrial ecology
redesigning industrial systems to reduce
resource inputs and to minimize physical inefficiency while
maximizing economic efficiency
Industrial systems should function like ecological systems,
with little waste
Life Cycle Analysis
examine the life cycle of a product and
look for ways to make the process more ecologically efficient
Waste products can be used as raw materials
Eliminating environmentally harmful products and materials
Look for ways to create products that are more dur
Environmental Health
assesses environmental factors
that influence human health and quality of life
Physical hazards
occur naturally in our environment
Earthquakes, volcanoes, fires, floods, droughts
We can't prevent them, but we can prepare for them
Chemical Hazards
synthetic chemicals such as pesticides,
disinfectants, pharmaceuticals
Harmful natural chemicals also exist
Biological Hazards
result from ecological interactions
Viruses, bacteria, and other pathogens
Infectious Diseases
other species parasitize humans, fulfilling their
ecological roles
Cultural Hazards
result from the place we live, our
socioeconomic status, our occupation, our behavioral choices.
Smoking, drug use, diet and nutrition, crime, mode of
transportation
Vector
an organism that
transfers pathogens to a
host
Endocrine disruptors
compounds that mimic
hormones and interfere with the functioning of
animals' endocrine (hormone) systems
Affect brain and nervous system development, and
may cause cancer
Toxicology
the study of the effects of poisonous
substances on humans and other organisms
Toxicity
the degree of harm a toxicant can cause, depends on the
combined effect of the chemical and its quantity
Toxicant
any toxic agent
Environmental Toxicology
Deals with toxic substances that come from or are
discharged into the environment
Studies the health effects on humans, other animals, and
ecosystems
Focus mainly on humans, using other animals as test
subjects
Can serve as indicators of health threats
Carcinogens
cause cancer
Mutagens
cause DNA mutations
Can lead to severe problems,
including cancer
Teratogens
cause birth defects
Allergens
overactivate the immune
system
Neurotoxins
assault the nervous
system
Pesticide Drift
airborne
transport of pesticides
Breakdown Products
toxicants degrade into simpler
products
Bioaccumulation
increase in concentration of a pollutant from the environment to the first organism in a food chain
Biomagnification
increase in concentration of a pollutant from one link in a food chain to another
Epidemiology
large-scale comparisons between groups
of people
Case histories
studying sickened individuals directly
Dose
the amount of toxicant the test animal receives
Response
the type or magnitude of negative effects of
the animal
Dose-response curve
the plot of dose given against
response
LD50
the amount of toxicant required to kill (affect)
50% of the subjects
Threshold
the dose level where certain responses occur
Organs can metabolize or excrete low doses of a toxicant
Acute exposure
high exposure for short periods
of time to a hazard
Easy to recognize
Stem from discrete events: ingestion, oil spills,
nuclear accident
Chronic exposure
low exposure for long periods
of time to a hazard
Hard to detect and diagnose
Affects organs gradually: lung cancer, liver
damage
Synergistic Effects
interactive impacts that are more
than or different from the simple sum of their
constituent effects
Risk
the probability that some harmful outcome will
result from a given action
Risk assessment
the quantitative measurement of risk
and the comparison of risks involved in different
activities or substances
It is a way of identifying and outlining problems
Innocent until proven guilty approach
product
manufacturers must prove a product is safe
Benefits: now slowing down technological
innovation and economic advancement
Disadvantage: putting into wide use some
substances that may later on turn out to be
dangerous
Precautionary Principle Approach
the government,
scientists, and the public are required to prove a product
is dangerous
Assume substances are harmful until they are proven
harmless
Identifies troublesome toxicants before they are
released
But, this may impede the pace of technology and
Toxic Substances Control Act
monitors thousands of industrial chemicals manufactured in or imported into the United States, and agencies can regulate them.
Ignitable
substances that easily catch fire (natural
gas, alcohol)
Corrosive
substances that corrode metals in
storage tanks or equipment
Reactive
substances that are chemically unstable
and readily react with other compounds, often
explosively or by producing noxious fumes
Toxic
substances that harm human health when
they are inhaled, are ingested, or contact human skin
E-waste
waste involving electronic devices
Computers, printers, VCRs, fax machines, cell phones
Disposed of in landfills, but should be treated as hazardous substances
Some people and businesses are trying to use and reuse
electronics to reduce waste
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
states are required to manage hazardous waste
Large generators of hazardous
waste must obtain permits and
must be tracked "from cradle
to grave"
Intended to prevent illegal
dumping
Surface impoundments
store
liquid hazardous waste
Shallow depressions are lined with
plastic and clay
Water containing waste evaporates,
the residue of solid hazardous
waste is then transported elsewhere
Deep-well injection
a well
is drilled deep beneath the
water table and waste is
injected into it
A long-term disposal
method
The well is intended to be
isolated from groundwater
and human contact
Superfund
Established a federal program to clean up U.S. sites
polluted with hazardous waste
Experts identify polluted sites, take action to protect
groundwater near these sites, and clean up the pollution
brownfields
lands
whose reuse or development are complicated by the presence of
hazardous materials
Ethics
the study of good and bad, right and wrong
9Relativists
ethics varies with social context
Universalists
right and wrong remains the same
across cultures and situations
Ethical standards
criteria that help differentiate right
from wrong
Instrumental Value
valuing something for
its pragmatic benefits by using it
Intrinsic Value
valuing something for its own
sake because it has a right to exist
Environmental ethics
application of ethical standards
to relationships between human and nonhuman entities
Anthropocentrism
only humans have intrinsic value
Biocentrism
some nonhuman life has intrinsic value
Ecocentrism
whole ecological systems have value
John Ruskin
people no longer appreciated nature
John Muir
ecocentric
viewpoint
- He was a tireless advocate
for wilderness preservation
Conservation Ethic
Use natural resources wisely for the greatest good for the
most people
Ecofeminism
the female worldview interprets the
world through interrelationships and cooperation
- More compatible with nature
Environmental Justice
the fair and equitable treatment
of all people regarding environmental issues
- The poor and minorities have less information, power,
and money
Economics
studies how people use resources to provide
goods and services in the face of demand
Subsistence Economy
people get their daily needs
directly from nature or their own production
Capitalist Market Economy
buyers and sellers interact
to determine prices and production of goods and services
Centrally Planned economy
the government
determines how to allocate resources
Mixed economy
governments intervene to some extent
Ecosystem Services
essential services support the life
that makes economic activities possible
Soil formation
Pollination
Water purification
Nutrient cycling
Climate regulation
Waste treatment
Classical Economics
when people pursue economic
self-interest in a competitive marketplace
Cost-Benefit Analysis
costs of a proposed action are
compared to benefits that result from the action
- If benefits > costs: pursue the action
Externalities
costs or benefits involving people other
than the buyer or seller
External costs
borne by someone not involved in a
transaction
- Health problems, resource depletion, property damage
Affluenza
material goods do not always bring
contentment
Environmental Economics
unsustainable economies
have high population growth and inefficient resource use
Ecological economics
civilizations cannot overcome
environmental limitations
Steady-state Economies
mirror natural ecological
systems�they neither grow nor shrink
Gross Domestic Product
the total monetary
value of goods and services
a nation produces
Genuine Progress Indicator
differentiates
between desirable and undesirable economic activity
- Positive contributions (e.g., volunteer work) not paid
for with money are added to economic activity
- Negative impacts (crime, pollution) are subtracted
Contingent valuation
uses surveys to determine how
much people are willing to pay to protect or restore a
resource
Market failure
occurs when markets ignore:
- The environment's positive impacts
- The negative effects of activities on the environment
or people (external costs)
Ecolabeling
tells
consumers which brands
use environmentally
benign processes
Greenwashing
consumers are misled into thinking
companies are acting more sustainably than they are
Dissolved oxygen
Oxygen in the water
Biological oxygen demand
Organisms that are using the water
Greywater
Water from your shower that isn't contaminated and used for irrgation.
Silent Spring
Rachel Carson wrote that artificial pesticides are hazardous to people.
Indicator Species
A species whose presence in an environment is a sign of the overall health of the ecosystem.
Antagonistic Effects
when the combined effects of a mixture of chemicals is less than the sum of their individual effects
eutrophication
an increase in the rate of supply of organic matter in an ecosystem.