anomie
A lack of norms or clear social standards. Because of rapidly shifting moral values, the individual has few guides to what is socially acceptable.
appellate court
Court that reviews trial court procedures to determine whether they have complied with accepted rules and constitutional doctrines.
biosocial theory
Approach to criminology that focuses on the interaction between biological and social factors as they are related to crime.
capital punishment
The execution of criminal offenders; the death penalty.
Chicago School
Group of urban sociologists who studied the relationship between environmental conditions and crime.
classical criminology
Theoretical perspective suggesting that (1) people have free will to choose criminal or conventional behaviors; (2) people choose to commit crime for reasons of greed or personal need; and (3) crime can be controlled only by the fear of criminal sanctions
common law
Early English law, developed by judges, which became the standardized law of the land in England and eventually formed the basis of the criminal law in the United States.
conflict theory
The view that human behavior is shaped by interpersonal conflict and that those who maintain social power will use it to further their own ends.
conflict view
The belief that criminal behavior is defined by those in power in such as way as to protect and advance their own self-interest.
consensus view
The belief that the majority of citizens in a society share common values and agree on what behaviors should be defined as criminal.
crime
An act, deemed socially harmful or dangerous, that is specifically defined, prohibited, and punished under the criminal law.
criminal justice
System made up of the agencies of social control, such as police departments, the courts, and correctional institutions, that handle criminal offenders.
criminal law
The written code that defines crimes and their punishments.
Criminological Enterprise
The various subareas included within the scholarly discipline of criminology, which, taken as a whole, define the field of study.
criminology
The scientific study of the nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal behavior.
Critical Criminologists
Members of a branch of criminology that focuses on the oppression of the poor, women, and minorities, thereby linking class conflict, sexism, and racism to crime rates. Critical criminologists examine how those who hold political and economic power shape
critical criminology
The branch of criminology that holds that the cause of crime can be linked to economic, social, and political disparity. Some groups in society, particularly the working class and ethnic minorities, are seen as the most likely to suffer oppressive social
developmental theory
The view that criminality is a dynamic process, influenced by social experiences as well as individual characteristics.
deviance
Behavior that departs from the social norm but is not necessarily criminal.
felony
A serious offense that carries a penalty of imprisonment, usually for one year or more, and may entail loss of political rights.
interactionist view
The belief that those with social power are able to impose their values on society as a whole, and these values then define criminal behavior.
penology
Subarea of criminology that focuses on the correction and control of criminal offenders.
positivism
The branch of social science that uses the scientific method of the natural sciences and suggests that human behavior is a product of social, biological, psychological, or economic forces.
precedent
A rule derived from previous judicial decisions and applied to future cases; the basis of common law.
rational choice theory (choice theory)
The view that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender weighs the potential costs and benefits of an illegal act.
rehabilitation
Treatment of criminal offenders that is aimed at preventing future criminal behavior.
reliable measure
A measure that produces consistent results from one measurement to another.
scientific method
The use of verifiable principles and procedures for the systematic acquisition of knowledge. Typically involves formulating a problem, creating hypotheses, and collecting data, through observation and experiment, to verify the hypotheses.
social process theory
The view that criminality is a function of people's interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society.
social structure theory
The view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary cause of crime.
socialization
Process of human development and enculturation. Socialization is influenced by key social processes and institutions.
statutory crimes
Crimes defined by legislative bodies in response to changing social conditions, public opinion, and custom.
trait theory
The view that criminality is a product of abnormal biological or psychological traits.
utilitarianism
The view that people's behavior is motivated by the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain.
valid measure
A measure that actually measures what it purports to measure; a measure that is factual.
white-collar crime
Illegal activities of people and institutions whose acknowledged purpose is profit through legitimate business transactions. White-collar crimes can involve theft, embezzlement, fraud, market manipulation, restraint of trade, and false advertising.
aging out
Phrase used to express the fact that people commit less crime as they mature.
chronic offenders (career criminals)
The small group of persistent offenders who account for a majority of all criminal offenses.
cleared crimes
Crimes are considered cleared when at least one person is arrested, charged, and turned over to the court for prosecution or when some element beyond police control (such as the offender having left the country) precludes the physical arrest of an offende
early onset
The view that repeat offenders begin their criminal careers at a very young age.
expressive crimes
Offenses committed not for profit or gain but to vent rage, anger, or frustration.
instrumental crimes
Offenses designed to improve the financial or social position of the criminal.
liberal feminist theory
A view of crime that suggests that the social and economic role of women in society controls their crime rates.
masculinity hypothesis
The view that women who commit crimes have biological and psychological traits similar to those of men.
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
The ongoing victimization study conducted jointly by the Justice Department and the U.S. Census Bureau that surveys victims about their experiences with law violation.
National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)
Program that requires local police agencies to provide a brief account of each incident and arrest within 22 crime patterns, including incident, victim, and offender information.
neurotransmitter
A chemical substance, such as dopamine, that transmits nerve impulses from one neuron to another (neurons are specialized cells that make up the body's nervous system).
Part I crimes
The eight most serious offenses included in the UCR: murder, rape, assault, robbery, burglary, arson, larceny, and motor vehicle theft.
Part II crimes
All other crimes, aside from the eight Part I crimes, included in the UCR arrest data. Part II crimes include arson, drug offenses, sex crimes, and vandalism, among others.
racial threat theory
As the size of the black population increases, the perceived threat to the white population increases, resulting in a greater amount of social control imposed on blacks.
Uniform Crime Report (UCR)
Large database, compiled by the FBI, of crimes reported and arrests made each year throughout the United States.
active precipitation
Aggressive or provocative behavior of victims that results in their victimization.
capable guardians
Effective deterrents to crime, such as police or watchful neighbors.
compensation
Financial aid awarded to crime victims to repay them for their loss and injuries; may cover medical bills, loss of wages, loss of future earnings, and/or counseling.
crisis intervention
Emergency counseling for crime victims.
cycle of violence
Victims of crime, especially victims of childhood abuse, are more likely to commit crimes themselves.
deviant place theory
The view that victimization is primarily a function of where people live.
lifestyle theories
Views on how people become crime victims because of lifestyles that increase their exposure to criminal offenders.
motivated offenders
People willing and able to commit crimes.
passive precipitation
Personal or social characteristics of victims that make them attractive targets for criminals; such victims may unknowingly either threaten or encourage their attackers.
routine activities theory
The view that victimization results from the interaction of three everyday factors: the availability of suitable targets, the absence of capable guardians, and the presence of motivated offenders.
suitable targets
Objects of crime (persons or property) that are attractive and readily available.
victim precipitation theory
The view that victims may initiate, either actively or passively, the confrontation that leads to their victimization.
victimoffender reconciliation programs
Mediated face-to-face encounters between victims and their attackers, designed to produce restitution agreements and, if possible, reconciliation.
victimwitness assistance programs
Government programs that help crime victims and witnesses; may include compensation, court services, and/or crisis intervention.
classical criminology
Theoretical perspective suggesting that (1) people have free will to choose criminal or conventional behaviors; (2) people choose to commit crime for reasons of greed or personal need; and (3) crime can be controlled only by the fear of criminal sanctions
crime discouragers
People who serve as guardians of property or people.
defensible space
The principle that crime can be prevented or displaced by modifying the physical environment to reduce the opportunity that individuals have to commit crime.
diffusion
An effect that occurs when efforts to prevent one crime unintentionally prevent another.
discouragement
An effect that occurs when crime control efforts targeting a particular locale help reduce crime in surrounding areas and populations.
displacement
An effect that occurs when crime control efforts simply move, or redirect, offenders to less heavily guarded alternative targets.
edgework
The excitement or exhilaration of successfully executing illegal activities in dangerous situations.
extinction
An effect that occurs when crime reduction programs produce a short-term positive effect, but benefits dissipate as criminals adjust to new conditions.
general deterrence
A crime control policy that depends on the fear of criminal penalties, convincing the potential law violator that the pains associated with crime outweigh its benefits.
incapacitation effect
Placing offenders behind bars during their prime crime years reduces their opportunity to commit crime and helps lower the crime rate.
offender-specific crime
A crime in which offenders evaluate their skills, motives, needs, and fears before deciding to commit the criminal act.
offense-specific crime
A crime in which the offender reacts selectively to the characteristics of a particular criminal act.
rational choice theory (choice theory)
The view that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender weighs the potential costs and benefits of an illegal act.
recidivism
Repetition of criminal behavior.
replacement
An effect that occurs when criminals try new offenses they had previously avoided because situational crime prevention programs neutralized their crime of choice.
seductions of crime
The situational inducements or immediate benefits that draw offenders into law violations.
situational crime prevention
A method of crime prevention that seeks to eliminate or reduce particular crimes in specific settings.
specific deterrence
The view that criminal sanctions should be so powerful that offenders will never repeat their criminal acts.