Final Exam: Criminology

Chapter 7

Chapter 7

Things that create social order

1. Obedience,
2. respect for authority,
3. shared goals and values,
4. commitment to and investment in custom and convention

Social control theorists study these questions and are interested in

Do rules alone guarantee peaceful existence of a group or society?
Who and what ensure compliance with the rules?
Social control theorists are interested in learning why people conform to norms.

Social control theory focuses on

Techniques and strategies that regulate human behavior and lead to conformity, or obedience to society's rules
the influences of family and school, religious beliefs, moral values, friends, and even beliefs about government.

The more involved and committed a person is to conventional activities, values; and the more they are attached to parents, loved ones, and friends, the less likely a person is to?

violate society's rules and jeopardize their relationships and aspirations.

The concept of social control emerged in the early (blank) in a volume by (blank).

The concept of social control emerged in the early 1900s in a volume by E.A. Ross, one of the founders of American sociology.

According to Ross, belief systems, rather than specific laws, guide what people (blank) and serve to control (blank)

do and universally serve to control behavior.

The concept of social control varies from one theorist to another. Theorists who have adopted this orientation consider

laws, norms, customs, mores, ethics, and etiquette to be forms of social control.

Social control has been examined from both a

macrosociological and microsociological perspective.

Macrosociological studies explore

formal systems for the control of groups
Example: the legal systems, laws, law enforcement, powerful groups in society, government directives.

Microsociological studies focus on

Informal systems.
These theorists look at individuals, and small informal groups.

Travis Hirschi has been the "spokesperson" for the

microsociological perspective in social control theory;
he was not the first theorist to examine social control and delinquency.

In 1957, Jackson Toby introduced the notion of individual (Blank) as a powerful determining force in the social control of behavior.

commitment

Scott Briar and Irving Piliavin expanded on Toby's theory by suggesting ( blank). They noted (Blank)

individual commitment and conformity plays a role in decreasing the likelihood of deviance.
They noted that the degree of an adolescent's commitment is reflected in relationships with adult authority figures and with friends and is determined in part by

Hirschi was less interested in (Blank) He claimed that (blank)

The source of an individual's motivation to commit delinquent acts than in the reasons people do not commit such acts.
He claimed social control theory explains conformity and adherence to rules, not deviance.

Hirschi suggested that there are 4 social bonds that promote socialization and conformity (blank),
He administered a (blank),
He found that weakness in any of the bonds was associated with (blank).

1. attachment,
2. commitment,
3. involvement,
4. belief
The stronger these bonds, the less the likelihood of delinquency.
He administered a self-report questionnaire to 4,077 junior and senior high school students in California.
He found that weakness in

Attachment takes 3 forms:

attachment to
1. parents,
2. school (teachers),
3. peers.

If a child is close to a parent, they are less likely to be

delinquent because it might jeopardize this relationship

Attachment to school depends on
a youngster's

1. appreciation for the institution,
2. perception of how he or she is received by teachers and peers,
3. level of achievement in class.

Hirschi felt that attachment to parents and school overshadows the bond formed with

peers.

Commitmentto or investment in conventional lines of action

that is, support of and participation in social activities that tie the individual to the society's moral or ethical code is another form of social bond.
This includes:
1.vocational aspirations,
2. educational expectations,
3. educational aspirations.

Research has consistently demonstratd that youth who participate in after-school programs and activities have

1. better attendance,
2. achieve higher grades,
3. perform better on standardized tests,
4. exhibit fewer behavioral problems,
5. are more confident
6. are better-equipped to handle conflicts.

Involvement

This bond is derived from or preoccupation with activities that promote the interests of society.
example: involvement in school-related activities.
A person who is busy doing conventional things has little time for deviant activities.
This explains why m

Belief

Belief consists of assent to the society's value system

The value system of any society entails

respect for its laws and for the people and institutions that enforce them.
If young people no longer believe laws are fair, their bond to society weakens, and the probability that they will commit delinquent acts increases.

Over the last 50 years, support has increased for the idea that both social (external) and personal (internal) control systems are

important forces in keeping individuals from committing crimes.

Albert J. Reiss, a sociologist, was one of the first researchers to isolate a

group of personal and social control factors.

According to Reiss, delinquency is the results of
1)
2)
3)

1. a failure to internalize socially accepted and prescribed norms of behavior
2. a breakdown of internal controls;
3. a lack of social rules that prescribe behavior in the family, the school, and other important social groups.

Reiss collected data on 1,110 juvenile delinquents placed on probation in Cook County (Chicago). He examined 3 sources of information:
1.
2.
3.

1) a diverse set of data on such variables as family economic status and moral ideals and/or techniques of control by parents during childhood;
2) community and institutional information bearing on control, such as residence in a delinquency area and home

Reiss felt that it is a combination of both (blank) and (blank) that predict whether one resorts to delinquent behavior or not.

social and personal controls

6 years after Reiss's study, Jackson Toby proposed a different personal and social control model. Toby discussed the

complementary role of neighborhood social disorganization and an individual's own stake in conformity.

What accounts for individual differences in criminal behavior in areas social disorganization?
For Toby, the difference is a differing stake in

conformity

conformity

correspondence of behavior to society's patterns, norms, or standards.
One person may respond to bad neighborhood conditions by becoming hostile to conventional values. Another person in the same neighborhood may maintain his or her stake in conformity an

Walter Reckless presented

containment theory.

Containment theory assumes

that for every individual, there exists a containing external structure and a protective internal structure, both of which provide defense, protection, or insulation against delinquency.

According to Reckless, "outer containment," or the structural buffer that holds the person in bounds, can be found in the following components:

A role that provides a guide for a person's activities
A set of reasonable limits and responsibilities
An opportunity for the individual to achieve status
Cohesion among members of a group, including joint activity and togetherness
A sense of belonging (i

Francis Ivan Nye developed the notion that

multiple control factors determine human behavior.

internalized control

self-regulation

Francis Ivan Nye argued that internalized control, or self-regulation,
was a product of

guilt aroused in the conscience when norms have been internalized.

Indirect control comes from

an individual's identification with noncriminals and a desire not to embarrass parents and friends by acting against their expectations.

Nye believes social control involves

needs satisfaction," which means control depends on how well a family can prepare the child for success at school, with peers, and in the workplace.

Direct control,

a purely external control, depends on rules, restrictions, and punishments. (Nye)

All developmental theories have one thing in common:

explanations for why offending starts (onset), why it continues (continuance), why it becomes more frequent or more serious (escalation), why it de-escalates (de-escalation), and why, inevitably, it stops (desistance).

Life course theory was first introduced in the 1980s as the study of

criminal careers, or "the longitudinal sequence of crimes committed by an individual offender.

of Robert J. Sampson and John H. Laub found that family, school, and peer attachments were most strongly associated

with delinquency from childhood to adolescence (through age 17).

From the transition to young adulthood through the transition to middle adulthood, attachment to work (job stability) and family (marriage) appear most strongly related to

crime causation.

Terence Thornberry argues that the potential for delinquency begins with the weakening of a person's

bonds to the conventional world (parents, school, and accepted values). For this potential to be realized, there must be a social setting in which to learn delinquent values. In this setting, delinquents seek each other out and form common belief systems.

Experimental school-based parent-training programs are offered in many states. The premise of these programs is that a child's bond to a family is (blank) and Parents learn to (blank)

crucial. Parents learn to provide opportunities that would help the child participate and succeed in a social unit such as the school and to reinforce conformity or punish violations of the group's norms.
crucial. Parents learn to provide opportunities th

A program called PATHE (Positive Action Through Holistic Education) operates in middle schools and high schools around the U.S. Its objective is to

reduce delinquency by strengthening students' commitment to school and attachment to conforming members.

Neighborhood-based organizations seek to

reduce crime by strengthening neighborhood cohesion

Chapter 8

...

In the 1950s social scientists were concerned with influence placed on (blank and blank).
During this time a small group of social scientists, known as

due process, under which a person cannot be deprived of life, liberty, or property without lawful procedures; and
equal protection, under which no one can be denied the safeguards of the law. Although these rights were to be afforded to each individual, t

labeling theorists", began to explore how and why certain acts were defined as criminal, or deviant behavior and others were not, and how and why certain people were defined as criminal or deviant.

...

labeling theorists felt that criminals are not

inherently evil people engaging in inherently wrong acts. Instead, these are individuals who have been labeled or given the status of criminal by the criminal justice system and the community or society at large.

labeling theorists focus not on the acts, but on

how society reacts to those acts.

Labeling theory declares that the

reactions of other people and the subsequent effects of those reactions create deviance. Once it becomes known that a person has engaged in deviant acts, he or she is segregated from society and labeled according to their act ("thief", "*****", "junkie").

Labeling theory is perhaps most widely associated with who and why

Howard Becker. Because Becker felt that once these individuals are labeled, they are seen as "outsiders" by the rest of society.

Edwin Lemert contended that there are 2 kinds of deviant acts:

1)"Primary deviations" are the initial deviant acts that bring on the first social response. These acts do not affect the individual's self-concept.
2)"secondary deviations,"
the acts that follow the societal response to the primary deviation that are of

In the 1960s there was in increase in protests in many forms�sit ins, rallies, long hair, rock music, marijuana use, etc. Arrests of middle-class youths
increased. Crime was no longer confined to the ghetto.

...

Sociologists began to ask who makes the rules that define deviant behavior, including crime? According to Howard Becker,

it is the "moral entrepreneurs" - the people whose high social position gives them the power to make and enforce the social rules by which members of society have to live. In other words, these certain members of society create "outsiders". This pits the

Labeling theorists are concerned with

the consequences of making and enforcing rules.

Conflict theorists question the

rule-making process itself.

Conflict theorists claim that

a struggle for power is simply part of human nature and this power results in certain interests groups managing to control lawmaking and law enforcement.

Conflict theory has its roots in

rebellion and the questioning of values.

Conflict theorists question

the system itself.

Conflict theorists ask

If people agree on the value system, as the consensus model suggests, why are there so many crimes?

Conflict theorists ague that laws do not exist for the collective good; rather they represent

the interests of specific groups that have the power to get them enacted.

The key concept in conflict theory is

power. The people who have political control in any given society are those who are able to make things happen. They have power.
Conflict theory suggests that people who possess the power work to keep the powerless at a disadvantage.
In other words, those

George Vold (1896-1967) was the first to relate conflict theory to

criminology.

George Vold argued that individuals band together in groups because they are

social animals with needs that are best served through collective action. If the group serves its members, it survives; if not, new groups form to take its place. Individuals clash as they try to advance the interests of their group. For Vold, the entire

For Ralf Dahrendorf, the consensus model is

utopian.

Ralf Dahrendorf believes that enforced constraint, rather than cooperation,

binds people together. Some people have the authority and others are subject to it.

Dahrendorf argues that social change is (blank), social conflicts (blank), and all societies are characterized by the (blank)

constant, are ever-present, coercion of some people by others.

Conflict can be either destructive or constructive, depending on whether it leads to a

breakdown of the social structure or to positive change in the social order.

Austin Turk says that criminality is a social status defined by the way in which an individual is

perceived, evaluated, and treated by legal authorities.

Criminal status is defined by those Turk calls the

authorities," the decision makers.

Criminal status is imposed on the (blank). This works so that both (Blank)

subjects," the subordinate class. authorities and subjects learn to perform their respective dominant and submissive roles. (Turk)

Conflict arises when people refuse to

go along, and they challenge the authorities. (Turk)

During the 1960s some were looking for radical solutions to social problems. They found their answers in

Marxism.

Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) was a partner in his father's industrial empire, yet he attacked the capitalist classes.

...

Engels teamed up with who to produce what?

Karl Marx (1818-1883) to produce a well-known book, The Communist Manifesto.

Marx argued that all aspects of (blank) are determined by economic organization (class structure) including laws.

social life

Marx felt that in capitalistic societies, the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) take advantage of the

proletariat (workers).

Marx felt that eventually the proletariat would rebel against the bourgeoisie and the class structure.

...

Willem Adriaan Bonger (1876-1940) entered a paper in a competition on the
influence of economic factors on crime. It was later expanded into a book, Criminality and Economic Conditions.

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Bonger explained that in primitive societies people shared what they had. They used what they produced. When food was scarce, everyone was hungry. In a modern capitalist society, people concentrate on production for profit rather than for the needs of soc

...

Georg Rusche and Otto Kirchheimer began to write their classic work at the University of Frankfurt.
They were driven out of Germany by Nazi persecution.
In Punishment and the Social Structure, they wrote that punishments had always been related to the mod

...

Rusche and Kirchheimer made others aware that severe and cruel treatment of offenders had more to do with the value of human life and the needs of the economy than with preventing crime.
Exa: oarsmen to power merchant ships as punishment

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There is a significant limitation to critical and Marxist work because it focuses on research of males.

...

Radical criminologists argue that rising crime among females is due to
male aggression and men's attempts to control and subordinate women.

...

Additionally, radical feminism has contributed to research concerning child sexual abuse, domestic violence, and prostitution.

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chapter 9

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In recent years, some criminologists have focused on why offenders choose to
commit one offense rather than another at a given time and place.

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Crimes are events.

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Criminals choose their targets.

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Certain places actually attract criminals.

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Crime has temporal patterns�some crimes happen more often at night than during the day; others happen more often on the weekend than during the rest of the week.

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Among those theories of crime that focus on the situation in which a crime occurs, 3 distinct approaches have been identified: environmental criminology, the rational-choice perspective, and the routine-activity approach. These approaches analyze the vari

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Environmental criminology examines the location of a specific crime and the context in which it occurred in order to understand and explain crime patterns. Environmental criminologists want to know how physical location in time and space interacts with th

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Environmental criminology begins with the assumption that some people are criminally motivated

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Through mapping crimes on global , country, state, county, city, or site-specific levels, criminologists can see crime patterns.
They then relate these crime pattern to the number of targets; to the offender population; to the location of routine activiti

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The rational-choice perspective, developed by Ronald Clarke and Derek Cornish, is based on two main theoretical approaches: utilitarianism (people make decisions with the goal of maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain; and traditional economic choice the

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According to rational-choice theory, a person decides to commit a particular crime
after concluding that the benefits (the pleasure) outweigh the risks and the effort (the pain). This perspective assumes that people make these decisions with a goal in min

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Rational choice implies that the offender does not know
all the details of a situation; rather, he or she relies on cues in the environment or characteristics of targets.

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According to Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson Six main elements anchor the tangible world of crime.
The inside triangle contains the 3 elements leading to a crime incident; an offender, target, and place (or setting). The outside triangle has 3 elements p

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When a suitable target that is unguarded comes together in time and space with a likely offender who is not "handled," there is a potential for a crime. This explanation is called the routine-activity approach.

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Cohen and Felson focus on the routine or everyday activities of people, such as going to work, pursuing recreation, running errands, and the like

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It is through routine activities that offenders come into contact with suitable victims and targets.

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In post-World War II, crime rates had increased.

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As technology advances, our devices weigh less and are more compact. This would explain why laptops and cell phones tend to be targeted. The worth per pound is much more than that of say, a washing machine.While these advances make our lives easier, they

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criminologists are increasingly interested in the factors that go into a decision to burglarize�the location or setting of the building, the presence of guards or dogs, the type of burglar alarms and external lighting, and so forth. Professional burglars

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street robbers frequently victimize other street-involved individuals (drug dealers, drug users, and gang members), because they are criminals themselves, are unlikely to go to the police.

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Hot Products: Cohen and Felson argued that items are attractive if they are visible, easy to take away, valuable, and accessible. Ronald Clarke used an acronym, CRAVED (concealable, removable, available, valuable, enjoyable, and disposable).

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College Campus Crime: if you engage in risky and deviant lifestyle, your risk is significantly increased. Students who party frequently and use recreational drugs regularly are at risk.

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Theories of victimization have been developed for the purpose of understanding crime from the victim's perspective or with the victim in mind.

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Hans von Hentig was one of the first to discuss the interaction between the perpetrator and victim. He demonstrated that tourist resorts were attractive to criminals who wanted to prey on unsuspecting vacationers. He founded the criminology subdiscipline

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Victimology can demonstrate how potential victims, by acting differently, can decrease the risk of being victimized.

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A "" was developed by Michael Hindelang, Michael Gottfredson, and James Garofalo in 1978.

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lifestyle theory of victimization argues that because of changing roles (working mother versus homemaker) and schedules (school calendar), people lead different lifestyles (work and leisure activities). Variations in lifestyle affect the situations one mi

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Lifestyle theory centers on a number of propositions:
1: The probability of suffering a personal victimization is directly related to the amount of time that a person spends in public places, and particularly in public places at night.
2: The probability

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Marvin Wolfgang studied homicides in Philadelphia during the 1950s.
He found that many of the victims had actually brought upon themselves the attack that led to their murder.
He coined the term "victim precipitation" to refer to situations where victims

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James Tedeschi and Richard Felson put forward a theory of "coercive actions," which stresses that the way victims and offenders interact plays a large role in violent crime.
They argue that people commit violence purposefully. In other words, people don't

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Theories of repeat victimization focus on the specific characteristics of situations in order to determine which factors account for the initial, as well as for repeat, victimization.
Theories of repeat victimization, also called "multiple victimization,

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Risks of repeat burglary are highest immediately after a previous burglary.
Offenders choose targets based on the knowledge they gained in the previous victimization about the risks and rewards of a particular offense.
To overcome this problem, several re

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In 1989, Lawrence Sherman, Patrick Gartin, and Michael Buerger analyzed and plotted 911 calls for Minneapolis, Minnesota.
They found that there were specific areas that accounted for half of the calls. They also found that certain types of crime were comm

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Situational crime prevention seeks to protect places, people, and valuable goods from victimization.
It is rooted in the 1971 work of C. Ray Jeffery's "crime prevention through environmental design" (CPTED) and in Oscar Newman's concept of defensible spac

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An important question concerning crime prevention still remains.
Crime-prevention strategists have demonstrated that displacement�the commission of a quantitatively similar crime at a different time or place�does not always follow.
Marcus Felson and Ronal

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Chapter 10

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The fear of being a victim of a criminal attack has led many to flee the cities to the expected safety of suburbs.

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There are differing definitions of violent crimes, but most agree it involves the use of or the threat of force on a victim by an offender.

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Homicide is the killing of one human being by another.

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Some homicides are sanctioned by law. In this category of justifiable homicide, we find homicides committed by law enforcement officers in the course of carrying out their duties, homicides committed by soldiers in combat, and homicides committed by a hom

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Murder has been defined as the intentional killing of another person with malice aforethought.
However, courts have struggled to define "malice". Malice might be described as the defendant's awareness that he or she had no right to kill but intended to ki

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An intentional killing without premeditation and deliberation became murder in the second degree.

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States that had the death penalty reserved it for murder in the first degree.
More recently, the charge of murder in the first degree has been reserved for the killing of a law enforcement officer or a corrections officer and for the killing of any person

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A special form of murder, felony murder, requires no intention to kill. It requires, instead, the intention to commit some other felony, such as robbery or rape, and the death of a person during the commission of or flight from that felony.

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Manslaughter is the unlawful killing of another person without malice. Manslaughter may be either voluntary or involuntary.

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Voluntary manslaughter is a killing committed intentionally but without malice. Exa: in the heat of passion or in response to strong provocation. These people are not thinking rationally.

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Involuntary manslaughter is when a person has caused the death of another unintentionally but recklessly by consciously disregarding a substantial and unjustifiable risk that endangered another person's life.

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Many states have created an additional category, negligent homicide, to establish criminal liability for grossly negligent killing in situations where the offender assumed a lesser risk.

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The murder rate in the United States is high, but it has been declining which tends to be contrary to what we're shown in the media.
In 2010, an estimated 14,748 persons were murdered nationwide.
This was a decrease of 4.2% from the 2009 estimate, a 14.8%

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Marvin Wolfgang found that many of the victims of homicides had actually initiated the social interaction that led to the homicidal response, in either a direct or subliminal way.
He coined the term victim precipitation for such instances,
which may accou

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Richard Felson and Steven Messner found that victim precipitation is more often seen in cases where women kill their husbands as opposed to incidents in which men kill their wives.

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Margaret Zahn and Philip Sagi developed a model that distinguishes among homicides on the basis of characteristics of victims, offenders, location, method of attack, and presence of witnesses.
They conclude that all these characteristics and variables ser

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Stranger homicide refers to a killing in which killer and victim have had no known previous contact. The rate of these was 13% in 2007. Even though it is relatively low, these types of crimes tend to incite more fear.

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A significant percentage of all homicides occurs among relatives and acquaintances.
One study found that 44% of the victims were in intimate relationships with their killers,
26% were friends and acquaintances,
11% were the offenders' own children, and
on

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The very young and elderly have low homicide rates. In 2010, 802 murder charges were placed against youngsters under 18.
People age 65 and older accounted for under 5% of all murders in 2010.

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In most homicides, the killer has a motive or a reason for killing the victim. The "unmotivated" murders are a puzzle�and they constitute 25% of all homicide offenders.
Though in most respects these are similar to motivated killers, they are more likely t

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Serial murders are the killing of several victims over a period of time.
Theodore "Ted" Bundy killed between 19 and 36 young women.
David Berkowitz, "Son of Sam", killed 6 young women in New York.
Although most serial killers are men, female serial killer

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Mass murder is the killing of multiple victims in one event or in very quick succession.
In 1999, there were 15 victims of a massacre at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado.
Killing rampages seem to be on the rise.

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It is popularly believed that multiple murderers are mentally ill.
Criminologists Jack Levin and James Fox say serial killers are sociopaths, persons who lack internal controls, disregard common values, and have an intense desire to dominate others.

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Gang murder has drastically changed since the 1950s.
From 1989 to 1993, there were 6,327 drive-by shootings, 9,053 people shot at, and 590 homicides.

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Homicide and serious assault are typically committed by young males, and a disproportionate number of arrestees are members of minority groups.

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Assault victims often know their attackers. Assault rates are highest in urban areas, during the summer months, in the evening hours, and in the South

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An assault is an attack on another person that is made with apparent ability to inflict injury and that is intended to frighten or to cause physical harm.

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An attack that results in touching or striking the victim is called----- battery.

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A simple assault------is one that inflicts little or no physical hurt.
The National Crime Victimization Survey estimates that 2,423,060 simple assaults were committed in 2010.

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A felonious assault or aggravated assault------ is one in which the perpetrator inflicts serious harm on the victim or uses a deadly weapon.
The number of aggravated assaults has declined in resent years, reflecting 722,180 in 2010.

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One researcher identified 6 stages of a confrontational situation that leads to an assault:
1. One person insults another.
2. The insulted person perceives the significance of the insult, often by noting the reactions of others present, and becomes angry.

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In 1962, five physicians exposed something they termed "battered child syndrome".
They reviewed x-rays and found 300 cases of child abuse,
of which 11% resulted in death and
over 28% in permanent brain damage.
Shortly after, the women's movement brought l

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In a national sample of 6,002 households,
Murray A. Straus and Richard J. Gelles found that about 1 of every 6 couples experiences at least one physical assault during the year.
Men, who more often use guns, knives, or fists, inflict more pain and injury.

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According to the National Institute of Justice, partner violence is strongly linked to a variety of reasons
1. mental illnesses,
2. a background of family adversity,
3. dropping out of school,
4. juvenile aggression,
5. drug abuse,
6. long-term unemployme

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Research also shows that women who have children by the age of 21 are 2 times more likely to be victims of domestic violence than are women who are not mothers, and that men who father children by age 21 are 3 times more likely to be perpetrators of abuse

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According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, approximately 3.7 million reports of suspected child abuse or neglect were made to Child Protective Services in 2008.
The rate of child abuse in lower-income families is high.
The risk of abus

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The law once defined rape as an act of enforced intercourse by a man of a woman (other than the attacker's wife) without her consent.
The name of the crime, its definition, and the rules of evidence and procedure, society's reaction to it�all have changed

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According to the Uniform Crime Reports, there were 84,767 forcible rapes reported to law enforcement in 2010.

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Most rapes are committed in the summer, particularly in July and in marriages involving alcoholic husbands.
Recent data shows that 48% of rapes are committed by men who know their victims.
Some research estimates that as many as 25% of all female college

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Researchers have developed a 3 category typology of rape.
1. Stranger rape occurs when the victim has had little or no prior contact with the offender.
2. Predatory rape involves a man who, using deception or force, intends and plans to rape his victim by

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Some believe that there are psychological factors behind reasons rapists do what they do.
Several experts believe that rapists suffer from mental illnesses or personality disorders. They argue that some rapists are psychotic, sociopathic, or sadistic.
Oth

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Kidnapping is defined as abduction and detention by force or fraud and transport beyond the authority of the place where the crime was committed.
It was not until the kidnapping of Charles Lindbergh's infant son in 1932 that comprehensive kidnapping legis

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Robbery is the taking of property from a victim by force and violence or by the threat of violence.
Robbery in the second degree can result in a prison term of up to 10 years.
If the robber has inflicted serious physical injury or attempted to kill, the s

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John Conklin detected 4 types of robbers:
1. The professional robber carefully plans and executes a robbery, often with many accomplices; steals large sums of money; and has a long-term, deep commitment to robbery as a means of supporting a hedonistic lif

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Organized crime had its origin in the great wave of immigrants from southern Italy to the United States between 1875 and 1920.
Sicilians had often been exploited by outsiders so they learned to rely on their families.
These families became famous with man

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Terrorism is a resort to violence or a threat of violence on the part of a group seeking to accomplish a purpose against the opposition of constituted authority.
A series of coordinated terrorist attacks in Mumbai, India, in November 2008 captured the att

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During 2006, the United States experienced some of the most gruesome displays of hate-crime violence.
According to the UCR, there were 6,598 incidents of hate crimes, which involved 7,775 separate offenses reported from over 12,000 law enforcement agencie

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The mid-twentieth century brought a new look to the school violence.
By the 1950s, students were viewed not as the victims but rather as the agents of violence.
In response, schools with high levels of violence developed security plans.
While, overall, vi

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Before 1850, less that 10 percent of US citizens were believed to own guns,
and between 1800 and 1845, only about 15 percent of all violent deaths were caused by guns.
The rate of firearms crimes has dropped significantly over the past 30 years.
In 1973,

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Chapter 11

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To develop crime-prevention strategies, we must study the characteristics of different types of offenses that deprive people of property.

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Larceny can range in forms from purse-snatching, pickpocketing, shoplifting, art theft to vehicle theft.
There are certain elements of larceny:
1. A tresspass
2. Taking and Carrying away of Personal property Belonging to another With the intent to deprive

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According to some criminologists, there are 2 types of thieves.
1. The amateur thief is an occasional offender who tends to be an opportunist. They take an advantage to steal when it appears to be of little risk to them. They are not very skilled, plan ve

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The most infamous study of professional thieves was conducted by Edwin Sutherland in 1937.
He suggested that these thieves have 5 characteristics:
1. They have well-developed technical skills for their particular type of operation
2. They enjoy status, gi

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Shoplifting is the stealing of goods from retail merchants and is a very common crime.
It constitutes about 15% of all larcenies.
Shoppers tend to be reluctant to reports shoplifting.
One study done showed that about 45.5% of shoplifters are actually pros

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Art theft is as old as art itself.
Looters have stolen priceless treasures from Egyptian tombs.
One of the most grandiose art thefts happened on May 21, 1986, when a gang of Irish thieves invaded an estate in Ireland with commando precision and made off w

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Fraud is the acquisition of the property of another person through cheating or deception. Fraud like other property crimes can take many forms.
The essence of fraud is that the victim is made to part with property voluntarily, as a result of the perpetrat

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Another fraud, check forgery, consists of altering a check with intent to defraud.
Edwin Lemert found that most check forgers are amateurs who act in times of financial need or stress, do not consider themselves criminals, and often believe that nobody re

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New risks accompany our cashless society, including credit card fraud.
As of 2007, the FBI estimates the losses associated with credit card fraud to be near $60 billion annually.
Credit card fraud in during the 1980s was associated primarily with counterf

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The common law defined arson as the malicious burning of or setting fire to the dwelling of another person.
Modern statutes have distinguished degrees of severity of the offense and have increased its scope to include other structures and even personal pr

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Chapter 12

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In 1890, the Sherman Antitrust Act, passed by Congress authorized the criminal prosecution of corporations engaged in monopolistic practices.

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Federal laws regulating the issuance and sale of stocks and other securities were passed in 1933 and 1934.

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In 1940, Edwin Sutherland provided with the first scholarly account of white-collar crime.
He defined it as crime "committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation."
The problem with this definition is that it

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Employees of large entities may abuse their authority for private gain by making their services to members of the public contingent on a bribe, kickback, or some other favor. Exa: corrupt employee of an insurance company, may write a favorable claim for e

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Eight categories of white-collar offenses committed by individuals can be identified:
1. Securities-related crimes
2. Bankruptcy fraud
3. Fraud against the government
4. Consumer fraud
5. Insurance fraud
6. Tax fraud
7. Bribery, corruption, and political

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The federal government enacted a series of laws in 1933 and 1934 which aimed to prohibit manipulation and deceptive practices.
The 1934 act provided for the establishment of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), which is an organization that regul

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State and federal securities laws seek to regulate both the registration and issuance of a security and the employment practices of personnel in the securities industries.

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The filing of bankruptcy petition results in proceedings in which the property and financial obligations of an insolvent person or corporation are disposed of.
Unscrupulous persons have devised numerous means to commit bankruptcy fraud - any scam designed

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The "similar name" scam involves creation of a corporation that has a name similar to that of an established firm. The objective is to create the impression that this new company is actually the older one. If the trick is successful, the swindlers place l

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The "old company" scam involves employees of an already established firm who, motivated by a desire for quick profits, bilk the company of its money and assets and file for bankruptcy. Such a scam typically is used when the company is losing money or has

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The "new company" scam is when a corporation is formed, credit is obtained, and orders are placed. Once merchandise is received, it is converted into cash with the assistance of a fence. By the company is forced into bankruptcy, the swindlers have liquida

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The "successful business" scam involves a profitable corporation that is well positioned in a market but experiences a change in ownership. After the new owners have bilked the corporation of all its money and assets, the firm is forced into bankruptcy.
O

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Fraud against the government can include collusions in bidding, payoffs and kickbacks to government officials, expenditures by a government official that exceed the budget, the filing of false claims, the hiring of friends or associates formerly employed

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Consumer fraud is the act of causing a consumer to surrender money through deceit or a misrepresentation of a material fact.

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Home-improvement fraud: consumers have been defrauded through the promise of low-cost home renovation. The homeowners give a down payment while the contractor has no intention to complete the work.

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Deceptive advertising: consumers are often lured into a store by an announcement that a product is priced low for a limited period of time. Once in the store, the consumer is told that the product is sold out, and he or she is offered a substitute, usuall

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Telemarketing fraud: countless phone calls are made to homes with the promise that the individual has won some sort of prize. They lure consumers by making attractive offers that are nothing more than scams. Once you pay, your name is added to a list whic

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Land fraud: the pitch is that a certain piece of vacation or retirement property is a worthy investment, many improvements will be made, and many facilities will be made available in the area. The land ends up being worthless or overvalued.

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Business opportunity fraud: the objective is to persuade a consumer to invest money in a business concern through misrepresentation of its actual worth. Work-at-home frauds are common. Consumers lose money in ventures.

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Varieties of insurance fraud include; policy holders defrauding insurers, insurers defrauding the public, management defrauding the public, and third parties defrauding insurers.

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Policyholder fraud is most often accomplished by the filing of false claims for life, fire, marine, or casualty insurance. Sometimes an employee of the company may be involved.

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Another type of insurance fraud is committed when a small group of people create a "shell" insurance firm without true assets. Policies are sold with no intent to pay legitimate claims.

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Another form involves middle - and upper-level managers of a company looting the firm's assets by removing funds and debiting them as payments of claims to legitimate or bogus policyholders.

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In yet another situation auto-body repair shops would inflate repair estimates to insurance companies. Repair estimates for insured vehicles were significantly higher than those for noncovered cars.

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The Internal Revenue Code makes willful failure to file a tax return a misdemeanor.
An attempt to evade or defeat a tax, nonpayment of a tax, or willful filing of a fraudulent tax return is a felony.
The government must provide evidence of income tax due

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Judges who fix traffic tickets in exchange for political favors, municipal employees who speculate with city funds, businesspeople who bribe local politicians to obtain favorable treatment�all are part of the corruption in our municipal, state, and federa

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Corruption can also be found in private industry. One firm pays another to induce it to use a product or service; a firm pays its own board of directors or officers to dispense special favors; two or more firms secretly agree to charge the same prices for

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The concept of a corporate crime is more than a century old. However there is a problem defining it.
In 1989 Exxon Valdez spilled 250,000 barrels of oil in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Prosecutors were interested in evaluating liabilities of the crew, bu

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Proactive corporate fault: assumes that a corporation is to blame where practices and procedures are inadequate to prevent the commission of a crime. Corporations are culpable when they fail to take reasonable steps to implement policies and practices tha

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Corporate ethos: an organization's ethos or personality encourages agents to commit criminal acts and there is liability under this form.
A corporation's ethos is determined by the corporate hierarchy, corporate goals and policies, efforts to ensure compl

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Corporate policy: corporate actions and intention may be found in decisions and choices relayed in policies. Internal decisions define corporate intentionality.

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Constructive corporate culpability: the concern is with whether corporations may be said to have a culpable "mental state". Courts would ask whether a corporation exhibits an awareness of illegality.

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In 1969, Congress passed the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA).
The act created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
It requires environmental impact studies so that any new development that would significantly affect the environment can be p

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The independent use of the criminal sanction: direct prohibition of polluting activities. This was an early attempt to make it a criminal offense to maintain a "nuisance" or ongoing activity that pollutes water, soil, or air.
The dependent-direct use of t

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Chapter 13

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A variety of drug problems exist that stretch beyond borders, that involve all social classes, that in one way or another touch most people's lives, and that cost society a significant amount of money.
The drug scene includes manufacturers, importers, pri

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Additionally, there are obviously numerous types of drugs which complicates this situation.
The use of chemical substances that alter physiological and psychological functioning dates back to the Old Stone Age.
Even Egyptian relics depict the use of opium

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As the spread of opium products and cocaine spread, the Federal authorities estimated that there were 200,000 addicts in the early 1900s.
Growing concerns led to the passage of the Harrison Act in 1914 which was designed to regulate the domestic use, sale

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It wasn't until the 1930s that the abuse of marijuana began to become more of concern for the public.
Marijuana was associated with groups such as; petty criminals, jazz musicians, bohemians, and, Mexicans.
The Marijuana Tax Act of 1937 placed a prohibiti

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Investigators of drug abuse tend to argue that there are particular characteristics of addicts such as strong dependency needs, feelings of inadequacy, a need for immediate gratification, and lack of internal controls (self-controls).
Some have suggested

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There are also many different lifestyles of drug addicts.

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In the 1950s, heroin began to increase in inner cities, especially among black and Hispanic males.
By the 1960s and 1970s, heroin addicts would spend their days buying heroin, trying to find safe places to shoot up, and waiting for that high.
The heroin a

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In the 1960s, marijuana had spread, particularly among the white, middle-class, and young people. These individuals often saw themselves as disenfranchised, and sometimes revolting against widely accepted norms.

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By the 1980s cocaine became the drug of choice among the privileged, even athletes and celebrities.
Typical cocaine users were well-educated, prosperous, upwardly mobile (able to move up in social standing), and in their 20s and 30s.

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Crack spread to the inner-city populated in the latter part of the 1980s as it was much cheaper than powdered cocaine.

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In September of 1989, President George Bush unveiled his anti-drug strategy. He singled out specific countries as larger contributors. He called for federal aid to states for street-level attacks.
The Clinton Administration emphasized drug education as we

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Alcohol is another substance that can contribute to social problems. The difference here is, obviously, that the sale and purchase of alcohol is legal in most jurisdictions.
The average annual consumption of alcoholic beverages by each individual 14 years

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All societies seek to regulate sexual behavior, although those regulations may differ from one society to another.
In the US, penalties are harsh for statutory rape, deviate sexual intercourse with a child, corruption of a minor, sexual assault, and endan

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Prostitution�soliciting for sex for money--in nearly all states is a misdemeanor.
The UCR recorded 62,668 arrests for prostitution and commercialized vice during 2010.
Prostitutions involves the acts and actors.
The prostitute is not alone. A pimp provide

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Pornography requires no physical contact; it simply refers to the portrayal of sexually explicit material.
Statutes in all states make it a criminal offense to produce, offer for sale, sell, distribute, or exhibit certain kinds of pornographic material.
F

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