Who created the two main learning theories?
Sutherland's Differential Association and Aker's Social Learning
What do social learning theories say in general?
The normal learning process is the cause of criminal behavior- it is learned from others like how people learn other attitudes and beliefs
What does Sutherland's Differential Association theory say?
Criminal behavior is learned through social interactions in a process of differently associating with different people (differential association)
T or F:
The ratio of people coming into contact with "definitions favorable or unfavorable to violation of the law" (whether criminal or conventional
Influences are stronger in a person's life) determines whether the person embraces crime as an acceptable
True
What two factors are compatible with Sutherland's Differential Association theory and allowed for a complete explanation of criminal activity?
Differential association and differential social organization
As a social psychological theory, what did differential association explain?
Why any given individual was drawn into crime
As a structural theory, what did differential social organization explain?
Why rates of crime were higher in certain sectors of American society.
(Where groups are organized for crime, definitions favoring legal violations flourish, and more individuals are likely to learn criminal values)
What is the first proposition of differential association theory?
Criminal behavior is learned
What is the second proposition of differential association theory?
Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication
What is the third proposition of differential association theory?
The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups
What is the forth proposition of differential association theory?
When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes:
1. Techniques of committing the crime
2. The specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes
What is the fifth proposition of differential association theory?
The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of legal codes as favorable and unfavorable
What is the sixth proposition of differential association theory?
A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of law. (Principle of differential association)
T or F:
differential association with delinquent peers negatively leads to delinquent definitions which negatively leads to delinquency
False
Positively, positively
Sutherland theorized that crime occurs when associations favorable to violation of the law _________ associations favorable to conforming to the law
Outweigh
What does empirical evidence say about measuring the ratio of violating and conforming to the law and understanding when the balance tips in favor of a criminal lifestyle?
It is extremely difficult to measure
Empirical research for differential association theory demonstrates a link between what?
Delinquent peers, delinquent definitions, and Delinquent behavior
T or F:
Research suggests that association with criminal friends and Adoption of criminal definitions decreases one's risk for engaging and various types of criminal Behavior
False
Increases
Delinquent associations increased ones likelihood of internalizing what, leading to an increase in what?
Internalizing definitions favorable to crime, which in turn increased the likelihood of minor offending
Research on differential association has found it to be associated with what kinds of various forms of delinquency and defiant behaviors?
Youth alcohol and Marijuana use, theft, assault, vandalism, tax cheating, illegal gambling, white-collar crime
T or F:
A review of studies on differential association theory demonstrates that the theory has garnered a generous amount of support
True
What is the biggest influence on an individuals delinquency?
Ones best/closest friends
What does it mean that peer networks are generally heterogenous?
They contain both delinquent and conventional peers
What does definition imbalance mean?
An individuals delinquency increases to the extent that the social network has a large proportion of delinquent Peers
What does Sutherland think comes first: crime or delinquent peers?
Criminal associations lead to crime
What does Gottfredson and Hirshi think comes first: crime or delinquent peers?
They argue people with low self-control will be more likely to associate with delinquent peers
What does research say comes first: crime or delinquent peers?
Research points out that criminal associations cause more crime, and committing crime causes more criminal associations
What are critiques with differential association throey?
Tabula rasa assumption, casual order is not addressed, doesn't consider alternative ways to learn behaviors and attitudes
What are 3 problems with tests of differential association theory?
It needs better assessments of peer networks, need to be able to measure accurately the ratio of definitions favorable and unfavorable to crime, the learned techniques haven't been well explored in literature
Who set forth the most influential contemporary extension of sutherland's Differential Association perspective
Ronald Aker's with his social learning theory
Who did Aker's base his work off of?
Bandera (Bobo doll experiment 1961)
What did Bandera emphasize?
The importance of cognitive functions (such as memory) in the process of learning
Who and what are the psychological theories of learning?
Skinner- operant conditioning and pavlov- classic conditioning
Classical conditioning involves learning a new behavior via the process of what?
Association
What is the first stage of classical conditioning?
Before conditioning, where an unconditional stimulus produces an unconditional response in an organism. Also involves a neutral stimulus, which has no effect on a person.
What is the second stage of classical conditioning?
During conditioning, where the neutral stimulus is associated with the unconditional stimulus and now becomes the conditioned stimulus.
What is the third stage of classical conditioning?
After conditioning, where the conditioned stimulus has now been associated with the unconditional stimulus to create a new conditioned response
How did skinner believe the best way to understand behavior is?
To look at the causes of an action and it's consequences
What is operant conditioning?
Roughly changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response
What does operant conditioning assume?
That the individual is a proactive player on seeking out rewards, not just a passive entity that simply recieves stimuli, which is what classical conditioning assumes
What are neutral operants?
Responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated
What are reinforcers?
Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. (Positive or negative)
What are punishers?
Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior
What is positive reinforcement?
It strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding
What is negative reinforcement?
It strengthens a behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience
What is punishment?
It is an adverse event that decreases the behavior that is follows
What did Bandura propose about learning?
People learn much of their attitudes and behavior simply from observing the behavior of others (immitating/mimicking)
What was the most important finding of Banduras experiments?
Simply observing the behavior of others, especially adults, can have profound learning effects on the behavior of children
T or F:
Criminal behavior is learned both in nonsoxial situations that are reinforcing or discrimination and through social interaction In which the behavior of other persons is reinforcing or discrimination for criminal behavior
True
What are nonsocial situations?
The environment can impact learning, even if it's not an explicit social interaction of communication between groups
What are Aker's four central concepts of social learning?
Differential association, definitions, imitation, and differential social reinforcement
What is differential association?
The relationships humans have with others
What are definitions?
Ones own attitudes or meanings that one attached to given behavior
What is imitation?
Occurs when a person observes another and decides to mimic the behavior the other person was engaging in
What is differential social reinforcement?
The perceived or acctual consequences of a behavior
What is Aker's first major claim of social learning theory?
Differential association is still the most important source of learning
What is Aker's second major claim of social learning theory?
Associations that occur earlier (priority), will last longer and occupy more time (duration), taken place more often (frequency) and involve others with whom one has a clear relationship (intensity) will have greater effect on definitions and behavior
What is Aker's third major claim of social learning theory?
definitions can be transmitted from both intimate and distant reference groups. Definitions can vary in their specificity, as well as their duration, priority, intensity and frequency
What is Aker's forth major claim of social learning theory?
Actual and anticipated consequences of a given behavior affect that behavior (differential reinforcement) consequences of behavior can be rewarding or punishing, as well as social or nonsocial
What is Aker's fifth major claim of social learning theory?
Behavior can be learned through observing and imitating what other people do, which may or may not involve social interaction. Imitation will continue to the extent that it is reinforced.
What is Aker's hypothesis with his four concepts?
Differential associations with people who have favorable definitions for the violation of laws leads to imitation of criminal behavior and others provide differential reinforcements to the person who modeled the criminal behaviors
T or F:
Aker's proposes that social structure has a direct effect in individual behavior through its effect on social learning variables
False
Indirect
What is the social structure social learning model?
The social structure provides context within which social learning variables operate
What kind of support has empirical examinations of social learning thoery, and the relevance of imitation and reinforcement to the learning process?
Very supportive
Empirical evidence of social learning thoery supports what kinds of different delinquent behaviors?
Adolescent smoking, drinking, drug use, and the age crime curve is matched by the relationship between age and social learning variables
What kind of support does empirical evidence for social learning theory have across different samples?
Predictive of alcoholic behavior among the elderly, misconduct even among law enforcement samples, significantly related to computer crime, gang members had acquired more pro-gang attitudes and we're more favorably inclined to gang activities, while non gang members, even involved in delinquency, didn't have favorable attitudes toward gang activities
T or F:
Differential reinforcement and imitation were stronger predictors of social learning
False
Weaker
Which elements of social learning theory have received the most empirical support and remain the best predictors of delinquency by social learning?
Differential association and definitions
What are the neuropsychological aspects of reinforcement?
Neuropsychological sensations (of power and rush) and neurotransmitters (dopamine) that are released during crime and create a sensation of a psychological high
What are some limitations to non-social reinforcements?
They are strongly focused on adolescent delinquency, only considers peers as sources of reinforcement, casual order is not addressed