Circular reasoning
-The argument conclusion is identical to one of its premises
- the argument attempts to support its conclusion solely by restating that conclusion in other words
-the argument rephrases its conclusion without offereign any support for it
-the argument dra
Ambiguous word usage
- the argument uses a key term ambiguously
- the argument darws a conclusion based on equivocal language
-the argument unfairly exploits an ambiguity in a word by treating two different meanings of hte word as if they were equivalent
-the argument inappro
Misinterpreting a Key Term
- the argument draws a conclusion based on the misinterpretation of an important key term
Unfairly redefining a key term
- the argument proceeds by redefining a term in a way that is favorable to the argument
-the argument unreasonably extends the application of a key term
Mixing up sufficient and necessary conditions
- the argument fails to establishthat a condition under which a phenonmenon is said to occur is the only condition under which a phenomenon occurs
-the argument assumed that if one factor leads to a certain result then no other factors can possibly lead t
Failing to Establish the a Sufficient Condition has been met
-self explanatory- remember the question in lesson 15 where she had plentiful supply of food BUT it was specified that it was GOOD food.
Failing to Establish that a Necessary Condition has been met
-explains what the necessary is but does not state that the necessary condition has been met
Failing to Recognize that a Necessary Condition has not been denied
-There is not a contradiction that can be attributed to the necessary condition
Attempting to Refute a Principle by Demonstrating the the Necessary Condition can exist Without the Sufficient Condition
Necessary can exist without the sufficient
Treating a Failure to Prove a Claim as Proof of the Denial of the Claim
-the argument takes for granted that something that has not been proven to be true is for that reason shown to be false
-the argument treats the failure to establish that a certain claim si true as equivalent to demonstration that that claim is false
-the
Treating a Failure to Disprove a Claim as Definitive proof of the claim
-the argument assumes that a proposition is true because it has not been proven false
-the argument uses that lack of evidence contradicting a claim as conclusive evidence for that claim
-the argument treats the failure to establish that a certain claim i
Mistakenly Applying the Transitive Property
-the argument fails to recognize that one set might have some mebers in common with each of two others even though those two other sets have no members in common with each other
-the argument ignores the possibility that things could be mutually exclusive
Mistakenly Equating "Some" With "Not All
Some does not justify that there must be others that have the opposing view- some could have no opinions or not care. Not all means that not everyone has this view, meaning that there should be others that have the opposing view- A some doesn't lead to a
Assuming that "Many...not" Implies "Not Many
Because many have done one thing but not another, doesn't constitute that not many will be able to do what the activities is- see the flawed methods of reasoning
Missing the Point at Issue
-the argument attacks a point htat is different from the one made by opponents
-the argument fails to respond directly to the claims set forth by opponents
-the argument is directed towards disproving a claim that was not made
Distorting the Point at Issue
-the argument misdescribes the position of its opponents, thereby making the position easier to challenge
-the argument gives a distorted version of its opponents' proposals and then attacks this distorted version
-the argument makes exaggerations in form
Appealing to Emotion
-the argument appeals to emotion rather than reason
-the argument seeks to persuade by emotional rather than intellectual means
-the argument uses emotionally charged terms to characterize unfairly the position it attempts to refute
-the argument appeals
Attacking a View by Focusing on Its Proponents (Ad Hominem)
The argument attacks the proponents of a claim rather than addressing the merits of the claim itself
-the argument dismisses the proposals because of their course rather than because of their substance
-the argument attacks a position based solely on that
Attacking a view by focusing on the motives of its proponents (Ad Hominem)
-the argument rejects a claim as false on the grounds that those who make that claim could profit if that claim is accepted by others
-the argument attempts to discredit a position by question the motives of the proponents of that position
-the argument r
Assuming a View is False if its proponents act counter to the view (Ad Hominem)
-the argument rejects a view merely on the grounds that its proponents have not behaved in a way that is consistent with the view
-the argument takes for granted that people always act in accordance with their beliefs
-the argument ignores the reasoning o
Appealing to Opinion
-the argument offers an opinion in support of a conclusion without revealing the basis of that opinion
-the argument confuses matters of objective fact with matters of subjective feeling
Making an Illegitimate Appeal to the Opinion of an Authority
-the argument relies on an assertion of authority
-the argument makes an illegitimate appeal to the authority of an expert
-the argument inappropriately relies on the opinions of experts
-the argument relies on the authority of experts in direct support o
Appealing to Popular Opinion
-the argument makes the unwarranted assumption that if the majority of the people holds a belief, then that belief must be accurate
-the argument bases its conclusion on the supposition that most people believe in that conclusion
-the argument infers that
Assuming Survey Responses are Accurate
Assuming the that survey is accurate and therefore, conclusions can be made based on those survey results
Mistakenly Equating What is True with What is Known to be True
-the argument presupposes that any statement that is true will be known to be true
-the argument makes the unwarranted assumption that there can be no reason for disbelieving a true statement
Mistakenly Equating What is False with What is Known to be False
-the argument presupposes that any statement that is false will be known to be false
-the argument presumes, without providing justification, that only true statements have good reasons to be believed
Assuming that Those Who Hold a Belief Also Believe its Implication
-the argument infers merely from the fact of someone's holding a belief that he or she believes an implication of that belief
Assuming that Desiring Something Implies Desiring Its Consequences
-desiring something will lead to the desire for its consequences
**go over this one
Assuming an Effect Must be Produced Intentionally
-it regards the production of an effect as incontrovertible evidence of an intention to produce that effect
-it draws a conclusion about the intentions of a group of people based solely on data about the consequences of their behavior
Providing Irrelevant Evidence in Support of a Contention
-the argument relies upon irrelevant facts to justify a claim
-the argument relies on evidence that does not directly address the issue at hand
-the argument relies on an irrelevant reason for rejecting an opposing position
-the argument offers as evidenc
Providing No Evidence in Support of a Contention
-the argument provides no proof whatsoever for its conclusion
Relying on a Question Analogy
-the argument attempts to analogize between two separate situations but overlooks a major difference between the two
-the argument ignores an important distinction between two states of affairs
-the argument treats two kinds of things that differ in impor
Ignoring Counter evidence
-the argument ignores available, potentially useful counter evidence
Basing a Conclusion on Evidence that Supports the Denial of the Conclusion
-the evidence offered in the argument supports a position that is diametrically opposed to the position taken in the argument
-the premises that are set forth in support of the argument's conclusion actually provide more support for hte denial of the conc
Basing a Conclusion on Contradictory Premises
-the argument bases its conclusion on premises that cannot all be true
-the argument makes incompatible assumptions
-the conclusion of the argument is derived from suppositions that contradict each other
-the argument bases a conclusion on claims that are
Assuming that a Premise of an Argument is False because the Argument's Conclusion is false
-the argument fails to consider that even if the conclusion of an opposing argument is false, some of the premises used to justify that conclusion may nonetheless be true
Discovering a Contradiction between Statements and on That Basis Concluding that a Particular Statement is False, When it is Equally Possible for that Statement to be True and Some other Statement False
-the argument treats a contradiction as proof that a particular premise must be false without excluding the possibility that the contradiction could have resulted solely from one of the other premises being false
Assuming that a Statement is True because a Statement that Contradicts it is False
-the argument attempts to establish that a statement must be true merely by establishing that a contradictory statement is false
-the argument assumes that the falsity of one view guarantees the truth of a conflicting point of view
-the argument overlooks
Advancing a position that contains an inherent contradiction
-the argument supports a position that necessarily leads to implausible consequences
-the argument defends a principle that is untenable on its own terms
-the position taken in the argument is internally inconsistent
-the line of reasoning used by the arg
Assuming a False Dichotomy
-the argument presupposes that alternatives that can be true separately cannot be true together
-the argument sets up a dichotomy between alternatives that are not exclusive
-the argument treats two things, neither of which can plausibly seen as excluding
Concluding that a Statement is False because Negative Consequences Would Occur if it were True
-the argument tries to show that a position is false simply by pointing out an undesirable consequence of holding that position
-the argument takes the fact that negative consequences would arise if a claim were true as proof of the denial of that claim
Positing a Casual Relationship when an Alternative Cause could account for the effect
-the argument fails to exclude the obvious alternative explanation for the observed effect
-the evidence presented in the argument is consistent with a compelling alternative hypothesis
-the argument bases its conclusion on facts that could, in the given
Mistaking a Correlation of a Casual Relationship
-the argument assumes a casual relationship where only a correlation has been indicated
-the argument concludes merely from the fact that two things are correlated that one causes the other
-the argument supposes that because two things usually occur in c
Mistaking the Cause for the Effect and the Effect for the Cause
-the argument mistakes the effect for the cause and the cause for the effect
-the argument concludes that one thing was caused by another although the evidence given is consistent with the first thing's having caused the second
-the argument takes what is
Assuming a Casual Relationship between two things that could have both been caused by something else
-the argument explains one event as being caused by another event, even though both events could have been caused by some third event
-the argument does not adequately consider the possibility that a correlation between two events may be explained by a co
Assuming that a Temporal Sequence Implies a Casual Relationship
-the argument concludes that a first event was caused by a second event solely on the grounds that the second event preceded the first event
-the argument mistakes the observation that one thing happens after another for proof that the second thing is the
Treating a Cause that Might be Only Partially Responsible for an Effect as Completely Responsible for the Effect
-the argument treats that a given action contributes to bringing about a certain effect as though that evidence establishes that the given action by itself is sufficient to bring about that effect
Providing a Casual Explanation that Fails to Identify the Root Cause
- gives a casual and effect relationship but does not identify the root cause
Attempting to Establish a Correlation by Focusing on Only One of the Things being Compared
-compare only one thing to establish a correlation, do not consider that other things could be studied to prove this- could be another reason why this has occurred
Failing to Recognize that a Middle Ground is Possible
-the argument ignores the possibility that there is a middle ground
Overgeneralization
-the argument overgeneralizes from a specific case
-the argument draws a conclusion that is broader in scope than is warranted by the evidence advanced
-the argument supports a universal claim on the basis of a single example
-the argument supports a prob
Generalizing from Two Extremes While ignoring the Middle ground
-the argument assumes without warrant that a situation allows only two possibilities
-the argument ignores the possibility that there is a middle ground
Generalizing from an Unrepresentative Sample
-the argument states a generalization based on selection that may not be representative of the group about which the generalization is supposed to hold true
-the argument makes a generalization based on a sample that there is a reason to believe is biased
Attempting to Refute a Probabilistic Claim With a Limited Number of Counterexamples
-the argument seeks to refute a generalization by means of an exceptional cases
-the argument attempts to refute a probabilistic conclusion by claiming the existence of a single counterexample
-the argument attempts to refute a general claim by reference
Assuming Temporal Continuity
-the argument takes no account of the differences between present conditions and future conditions
-the argument confuses claims about hte past with claims about the future
-the argumnet treats a claim about what is currently the case as if it were a clai
Assuming that a trait is always manifested
-the argument mistakenly reasons that just because something has the capacity to perform a given function it actually does so
-the argument fails to recognize that humans may possess a capacity without displaying it in a given activity
-the argument takes
Assuming that a relationship is precisely proportional
-the argument assumes that becasue people who have one quality tend to have a second quality, those who have more of the first quality will have more of the second
-the argument assumes that because people who have one quality tend to have a second qualit
Mistaking a Relative Property for an Absolute Property
-Because something is always more/better in one instance, doesn't mean that it always must be that way
Treating a Correlation that Holds Within Individual Categories as Though it Hold Across Categories
-the correlation of one example is true of the other example- and then a comparison of them
-see example
Assuming that What is True of Some of the Parts of a Whole is True of the Whole Itself
-the argument takes the fact that something is true of one sample of a class of things as evidence that the same is true of the entire class of things
Assuming that What is True of All of the Parts of a Whole is True of the Whole Itself
-the argument assumes that because something is true of each of hte parts of a whole it is true of the whole itself
-the argument infers that something is true of a whole merely from the fact that it is true of each of its parts
-the argument infers that
Assuming that What is True of a Whole is True of its Parts
-the argument presupposes that each of hte parts of a group must possess a certain characteristic if hte group as a whole possesses that characteristic
-the argument assumes that what is true of a whole is also true of its constituent elements
-the argume
Assuming the Greatest Part is a Member of the Greatest Whole
gives a general claim then assumes that because the example does something that that means the general claim is valid
-see examples
Assuming the Greatest Part of the Greatest Whole is the Greatest Overall Part
-see example
Failing to Recognize that Disadvantages Might Outweigh Advantages
-the argument overlooks the disadvantages of a course of action
-the argument recommends a course of action without considering the drawbacks of that course of action
Fails to Recognize that Advantages Might Outweigh Disadvantages
-the argument overlooks the advantages of a course of action
-a course of action is argued against without considering the consequences if that course of action was not pursued
Assuming that an Effect Cannot be Reduced by a Counteracting Factor
-it fails to consider that one phenomenon can steadily advance even when it is being impeded by another phenomenon
Mistakenly Equating a Percentage with a Number
-see example
-does not realize that numbers and percents are separate entities
Mistakenly Equating a Percentage with an Amount
-percentage doesn't mean amount
Mistakenly Equating a Number with an Amount
-see example
Failing to Consider Relative Size of Different Groups
-the argument draws a conclusion about two groups without considering the relative size of those groups
Treating Something Possible as Though it Were Definite
-the argument takes evidence showing merely that its conclusion could be true to constitute evidence showing that the conclusion is in fact true
-the argument relies on the actuality of a phenomenon that is has only shown to be possible
-statements that m
Treating something Probably as though it were definite
-the argument treats evidence that the conclusion is probably true as if that evidence establishes that certainty of the conclusion
-the argument treats something that is merely likely as though it were definite
-evidence that is taken to be only probably
Treating Something Possible as thought it were Probable
-the argument presupposes that what is true in some cases is true in most cases
-the argument treats something that is possible as though it were likely
-the argument overlooks the possibility that what is true under certain specified conditions is not ne
Treating a Partial Solution As Thought it Were A Complete Solution
-the argument presumes, without providing justification, that a course of action that is able to contribute to a solution to a problem is also able to completely solve that problem
Treating a Partial Solution as Though it were No Solution
-the argument mistakenly assumes that if a course of action does not fully solve a problem, then that course of action cannot contribute at all to the solution of the problem
Arguing for an Unfeasible Course of Action
-the argument recommends a course of action that cannot be executed
Arguing for a Counterproductive Course of Action
-the argument recommends a course of action designed to remedy a problem despite evidence that the course of action will actually exacerbate the problem
Arguing that a Course of Action is Necessary by Excluding Only One of Several Alternatives
-the argument offers as an adequate defense of a practice an observation the discredits only one of several possible alternatives to that practice
-the argument offers two alternatives that do not exhaust the possibilities available and then treats those
Presupposing a Flaw is Fatal
-the argument concludes that a shortcoming is fatal, having produced evidence only of the existence of that shortcoming
-the argument overlooks the possibility that the purported source of a problem could be modified to avoid that problem without being el