Tonicity
A solutions ablity to change the volume of cells by altering their water content
Osmosis
occurs only when a membrane is permeable to water. Water moves from higher water concentration to lower water concentration. Water molecules move through the membrane. Equilibrium is reached when as many water molecules move back due to hydrostatic pressu
The bodys different systems
Integutory
Skeletal
Muskular
Nervous
Endocrine
Cardiovascular
Lymphatic and immunity
Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
Reproduction
Integumentary system
Skin, hair, fingernails, toenails, sweat glands and oil glands.
Protects body, helps regulate body temperature, detects sensation such as touch and pain, warmth, cold.
Skeletal system
Bones and joints of the body and their associated cartilages.
Supports and protects the body; aids body movements, houses cells that produce blood cells.
Muscular system
Skeletal muscle, tendon
Participates in body movements, maintains posture, produces heat
Nervous system
Brain, spinal cord, nerves and special organs like yes and ears
Generates action potentials (nerve impulses) to regulate body activities. Detects changes in bodys internal and external environment. Interprets change and responds.
Endocrine system
Hormone-producing glands and cells
Regulates bodys activities by releasing hormones
Cardiovascular system
Blood, heart and blood vessels
Heart pumps blood through blood vessels to transport oxygen to cells and transport carbon dioxide and wastes away from cells.
Lymphatic system and immunity
Lymphatic fluids and vessels and cells that carry out immune systems.
Returns protein and fluids to blood
Respiratory system
Lungs and air passageways such as the pharynx (throat) larynx (voice box) trachea (wind pipe) and bronchial tubes.
Transfers oxygen to blood and carbon dioxide from blood
Digestive system
Organs of gastrointestinal tracts ; mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines and anus.
Urinary system
Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra
Produces, storres and eliminates urine
Reproduction system
Gonads and associated organs
Reproduction
Membrane Proteins
Receptor
Enzyme
Linker
Ion Channel
Carrier
Cell Identity Maker
Primary active transport
energy derived from hydrolysis of ATP changes the shape of a carrier protein, which "pumps" a substance across the plasma membrane against its concentration gradient. A typical body cell expends about 40% of the ATP it generates on primary active transpor
Sodium-potassium pump
The most dominant pump which expels sodium ions (Na+) form cells and brings potassium ions (K+) in. The pumps maintain a low level of Na+ and a high level of K+ in the sotosol and must work actively to keep this concentration. Different concentrations are
How a sodium-potassium pump works
1. Three Na+ in the cytosol bind to the pump protein
2. Binding triggers the hydrolysis of ATP into ADP, a reaction that also attaches a phosphate group to the pump. This changes the shape of the protein expelling the Na+ ions into the extracellular fluid
Secondary active transport
the energy stored in Na+ and H+ concentration gradient is used to drive other substances across the plasma membrane against their concentration gradients.
Steps of secondary active transport
Stored energy from hydrolysis of ATP from, for example, when Na+ leaks in, is converted to kinetic energy which is used to transport other substances against their concentration gradients.
symporters
transporters that transport two substances in the same direction
antiporters
transporters that move two substances in opposite directions.
Transport in vesicles
a process in which substances move into or out of cells in vesicles that bud from the plasma membrane. A vesicle is a small, spherical sac. Requires energy supplied by ATP.
Endocytosis
vesicles detach from the plasma membrane while bringing materials into the cell.
exocytosis
the merging of vesicles with the plasma membrane to release materials from the cell
transcytosis
movement of a substance through a cell as a result of endocytosis on one side and exocytosis on the opposite side.
Cytoplasm
all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus, and has two components, the cytosol and organelles.
Cytosol
the fluid portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds organelles and constitutes about 55% of the total cell volume. Consists of 75-90% water. Is the site of many chemical reactions required for a cells existence.
Cytoskeleton
network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytosol.
Microfilaments
the thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton and are composed of the proteins actin and myosin. They generate movement and provide mechanical support
Intermediate filament
they help stabilize the position of organelles such as the nucleus and help attach cells to one another.
microtubules
long, unbranched hollow tubes composed mainly of the protein tubulin. Determines cell shape. They also function in the movement of organelles such as secretory vesicles and cilia and flagella
organelles
special structures that perform specific functions in cellular growth, maintenance and reproduction. They often cooperate to maintain homeostasis
Organell: Centrosome
located near the nucleus. Contains tubulin that builds the microtubules in non-dividing cells. Forms the mitotic spindle during cell division
Organell: Cilia and Flagella
Cilia move fluids along a cell's surface. A flagellum moves an entire cell and is much longer than the cilia.
Organell: Ribosomes
the sites of protein synthesis. Contains ribosomal RNA and more than 50 other proteins. Free ribosomes synthesize proteins used in the cytosol
Organell: Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
is a network of membranes in the form of flattened sacs or tubules. Is connected to the membrane around the nucleus. Cells contains 2 distinct forms of ER, Rough ER and smooth ER
Organell: Rough ER
synthesizes (with the help of ribosomes and enzymes) glycoproteins and phospholipids that are transferred into cellular organelles, inserted into the plasma membrane or secreted during exocytosis.
Organell: Smooth ER
synthesizes (with the help of enzymes) fatty acids and steroids, inactivates or detoxifies drugs and other potentially harmful substances, and stores and releases calcium ions (Ca2+) that trigger contraction in muscle cells.
Organell: Golgi complex
with the help from enzymes it modifies, sorts, packages and transports proteins received from the rough ER. It forms secretory vesicles that discharge processed proteins via exocytosis into extracellular fluid, forms membrane vesicles that ferry new molec
Organell: Lysosome
membrane-enclosed vesicles that form from the golgi-complex. Lysosomes contain up tp 60 kinds of powerful digestive and hydrolytic enzymes. The membrane includes transporters that move final products into the cytosol, such as glycose, fatty acids and amin
Organell: Peroxisomes
similar in structure to the lysosomes but smaller. Contain oxidases, enzymes that can oxidize (remove hydrogen atoms)
Organell: Proteasomes
contains enzymes that continuously destroys unneeded, damaged or used proteins and cut them into small peptides.
Organell: Mitochondria
is the "powerhouse" of the cell since they generate most of the ATP through aerobic (oxygen-requiring) cellular respiration. Plays an important role in apoptosis, the death of a cell. Mitochondria can self-replicated when needed and have their own DNA.
Describe the Nucleus
Most cells have a single nucleus, although some cells, such as mature red blood cells, dont have a nucleus. A double membrane called the nuclear envelope seperates the nucleus from the cytoplasm. Many openings, called nuclear pores, extend through the nuc
Different organelles
Ribosomes
ER (rough and smooth)
Lysosome
Golgi complex
Mitochondria
Centrosome
Cilia and Flagella
Peroxisomes
Proteasomes
What part of a cell has the function of transporting fluid and particles away from the cell
Cilia
One of the cells in the body has no nucleus, which?
mature red blood cells.
where can you find the DNA?
In the Nucleus. Inside the nucleus are one or more spherical bodies called the nucleoli that function in producing ribosomes. Within the nucleus are most of a cells genetic units which control cellular structure and direct cellular activities. Each chromo
Tissue
a group of cells that usually have a common origin in the embryo and function together to carry out specialized activities. The structure and properties of a specific tissue are influenced by factors such as the nature of the exracellular material surroun
The body is build of 4 different types of tissure, which?
Epithelial tissues
Connective tissues
Muscular tissue
Nervous tissue
Epithelial tissues
cover body surfaces and line hollow organs, body cavities and ducts. They also form glands. This tissue allows the body to interact with both its internal and external environment.
Connective tissue
protects and supports the body and its organs. Various types of connective tissue bind organs together, store energy reserves as fat and help provide the body with immunity to disease-causing organisms.
Connective tissues functions
Bind together, support and strengthen other body tissues.
Protect and insulate internal organs
Compartmentalize structures such as skeletal muscles
Serve as major transport system within the body
Are the primary location of stored energy reserves
Are the
The connective tissue consists of 6 different types of cells, describe those:
FIBROBLASTS - large flat cells and most numerous, secreting the fibers and other components of the ground substance.
MACROPHAGES - A type of white blood cell. Are capable of engulfing bacteria and wastes. Wandering macrophages can move to infected areas w
Muscular tissue
are composed of cells specialized for contraction and generation of force. In the process, muscular tissue generates heat that warms the body.
Nervous tissue
detects change in varying conditions inside and outside the body and responds by generating electrical signals called nerve potentials that activate muscular contraction and glandular secretions.
Name the difference between connective tissue and epithelial tissue:
Epithelial tissue: many cells tightly packed together with little or no extracellular matrix whereas in connective tissue a large amount of extracellular material seperates cells that are usually widely scattered.
Epithelial tissue has no blood vessels, w
What is a cell junction
contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells.
The five most important cell junctions
Tight junctions
Adherens junctions
Desmosomes
Hemidesmosomes
Gap junctions
Tight junctions
consists of weblike strands of transmembrane proteins that fuse together the outer surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes to seal off passageways between adjacent cells
Adherens junctions
contain plague, a dense layer of proteins on the inside of the plasma membrane, that attaches both to membrane proteins and to microfilaments of the cytoskeleton. Helps cells to withstand separation during contractile activites, such as when food moves th
Desmosomes
contain plaque and have transmembrane glycoproteins that extend into the intercellular space between adjacent cell membranes and attach cells to one another. The plaque attaches to intermediate filaments. Ensures stability of cells and tissue.
Prevents fo
Epidermal cells
the outmost layers of cells in the skin
Hemidesmosomes
look like half of a desmosome. Transmembrane glycoproteins attach to intermediate filaments and plaque on the inside and on the outside to the protein laminin in the basement membrane. They anchor cells to the basement membrane.
Basement membrane
A thin, fibrous, extrecellular matrix of tissue that seperates the epithelium (skin, respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract etc), mesothelium (pleural cavity, peritoneal cavity etc) and endothelium (blood vessels, lymph vessles etc) from underlying con
Gap junctions
membrane proteins, connexins, form tiny fluid-filled tunnels that connect neighboring cells. Ions and small molecules (nutrients and wastes) can diffuse from one cytosol to another. Gap junctions also enable nerve and muscle impulses to spread among cells
Three types of fibers are embedded in the extracellular matrix between the cells, describe those:
Each type of connective tissue has unique properties, based on the specific extracellular materials between the cells. The structure of the extracellular matrix determines the properties of the tissue.
The extracellular matrix consists of two major components:
THE GROUND SUBSTANCE - is the component of a connective tissue between the cells and fibers. It supports cells, binds them together, stores water and provides a medium for exchange of substances between blood cells.
THE FIBERS - Three types of fibers are
Collagen fibers
are very strong and resist pulling forces, but they are not stiff which allows tissue flexibility
Elastic fibers
smaller in diameter than collagen fibers. They branch and join together to form a fibrous network within a connective tissue. Elastic fibers are strong but can be stretched up to 150% of their relaxed length without breaking. They have the ability to retu
Reticular fibers
Provide support in the walls of blood vessels and form a network around the cells in some tissues. Form branching networks which provide support and strength.
Three types of muscular tissue
Skeletal muscle tissue
Cardiac muscle tissue
Smooth muscle tissue
Skeletal muscle tissue
long, cylindrical and considered to be voluntary because it can be made to contract or relax by concious control.
Function: motion, posture, heat production, protection
Location: Usually attached to the bones by tendons
Cardiac muscle tissue
branched fibers with usually one located nucleus. Involuntary control.
Function: pumps blood to all parts of the body
Location: heart wall
Smooth muscle tissue
contain a single, centrally located nucleus. Can produce powerful contractions. Are involuntary.
Function: motion inside the body
Location: iris of eyes, airways to lugns, stomach, intestines etc.
what type of tissue cant be built?
Nervous tissue has the poorest capacity for renewal. Some stem cells are present in the brain but they do not undergo mitosis to replace damaged neurons.
Three factors affect the repair of damaged tissue, which?
NUTRITION is vital for the body repairing damaged tissue. Repairing damaged tissue places high demand on the bodys storage of nutrients. Adequate nutrients as well as vitamins in the diet are important.
BLOOD CIRCULATION is essential to transport oxygen,