Surface anatomy
Study of the surface of the body without dissection
Gross anatomy
Study of the body without a microscope usually involves dissection
Systemic anatomy
Study of the body based on systems (digestive, respiratory, etc)
Regional anatomy
Study of anatomy that is based on region ie arm, leg etc.
Radiographic anatomy
Study of anatomy that is using radiographic techniques, ie MRI, CT)
Embryology
Study of the initial development of a fetus up to 28 days
Microanatomy
Referred to as histology (study of tissues) of cytology (study of cells)
Name and describe the germ layers
1. Ectoderm - outermost germ layer: skin, hair, brain, nerves, "attract o derm"
2. Mesoderm - middle most: cardiac, skeletal, renal, muscle, blood, "means o derm"
3. Endoderm - inner most latyer: lung, gut, thyroid, pancreas "en-dernal organs"
4. Coelom -
Light microscope
Most common microscope; gives the lowest resolution.
Transmission electron microscope
Next highest resolution compared to light microscope. Has a viewfinder (resolution up to 200-300 nm)
Scanning electron microscope
Highest resolution. Produces a "3D" image on a tv viewing screen. Accomplished by sprinkling a fine layer of gold/palladium on the sample.
Specimen
The subject being viewed with the microscope.
What are microtome sections?
Very fine slices of specimen created with a tool called a microtome. Used to make specimens for viewing on a microscope.
What are the section techiques of a microtome?
1. Oblique section - cut at an angle that is not parallel or perpendicular
2. Cross section - perpendicular cut
3. Longitudinal section - parallel cut
Hematoxylin stain
Stains acidic components of cell blue. Some acidic structures that stain blue are: nucleus (due to DNA); acidic regions of cytoplasm; cartilage matrix.
Eosin stain
Stains basic components of cell red. Some basic structures that stain red or pink are: basic regions of cytoplasm; collegen fibers.
Masson's trichrome stain
1. Dark blue: nuclei
2. Red: muscle, keratin, cytoplasm
3. Light blue: mucinogen, collagen
Toluidine blue stain
Used to identify mast cells and connective tissue. Mast cells are found in the connective tissue and their cytoplasm contains granules (metachromatic) composed of heparin and histamine. Toluidine blue should stain mast cells red-purple (metachromatic stai
Immunocytochemistry
Lab technique that uses antibodies to target specific antigen epitopes (peptides or proteins specific to antigen)
Define fixation techniques for transmission electron microscope (TEM) sample prep
Fixation - prevents post mortem changes
1. glutaraldehyde: fixes proteins
2. osmium tetroxide: fixes lipids
3. potassium permanganate: fixes lipids
4. dehydration: usually done with alcohol
5. embedding in epoxy resin: used to harden sample so it can be s
Plasma membrane
1. Consists of lipid bilayer and associated proteins
Lipid bilayer
Mostly made of phospholipids and cholesterol, and glycolipids. Phospolipids hydrophilic heads out, hydrophobic tails in. Tails form weak bonds.
Glycolipids
Restricted to outer leaflet facing out, their polar carbohydrates are needed to form glycocalyx, which is important in cell protection, cell to cell recognition, attachment of the cell to extracellular matrix, binding of antigens, etc.
Cholesterol function in plasma membrane
Helps maintain integrity and control fluidity (decreases fluidity)
Describe the orientation of peripheral proteins in plasma membrane lipid bilayer.
1. Mostly located at the cytoplasmic-side of inner leaflet. 2. Some are attached to glycolipids of outer leaflet and extend to extracellular matrix. Important for attachment of cytoskeleton and in secondary messengers system.
3. Inner leaflet: upper half
Cytoskeleton
1. Eukaryotic cells contain three main kinds of filaments: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
2. Provides the cell with structure and shape.
Microtubule
Thick fibers in cytoskeleton that make cilia, and provide structure in the cell.
Centrosome
Microtubule organizing center" where microtubles are produced.
Extracellular matrix
matrix that cells "sit in
Intermediate filaments
Form a meshwork that gives cell mechanical strength
and shape
Golgi apparatus
Group of flattened sacs arranged like a stack. They function to modify and package proteins and lipids into vesicles.
Actin filaments
Microfilaments that are flexible and are usually layered beneath the plasma membrane. Involved in cell motility.
Nuclear envelope
Double membrane that covers eukaryotic DNA. Has an inner and outer nuclear membrane.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope; structure inside ER is called the ER lumen.
Nuclear pore complex
Facilitates exchange between the nucleus and the cytoplasm (ex. Ribosomes and RNA)
Perinuclear space (perikaryon)
The space between the two membranes that make up the nuclear membrane itself
Cytosol
Fluid within the cytoplasm. Contains chemicals dissolved and/or suspended in water.
Cytoskeleton contents
Microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments are three protein fibers of decreasing diameter, respectively. All are involved in establishing the shape or movements of the cytoskeleton, the internal structure of the cell.
Inclusions in cytoplasm
Consist of metabolic by-products, storage forms of various nutrients, inert crystals, pigments
Organelles
Metabolically active cellular structure that executes specific functions.
Mitochondria
1. Double layered:
a) outer membrane, which surrounds the whole organelle
b) inner membrane, which is thrown into folds (cristae)
2. Self-replicating
3. Contains own genome
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
1. Ribosomes adhere to its outer surface
2. Translation of mRNA that will stay in this organelle or
Protein synthesis for exported proteins occur on ribosomes of organelle.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
1. No ribosomes attached
2. Membrane-bound vesicle continuous lumen with RER
3. Synthesis of steroids, cholesterol, and triglycerides
4. Detoxification of toxic materials (alcohol & barbiturates)
5. Recipient for those proteins synthesized in RER
Ribosome
1. Make protein
2. Can float freely in cytoplasm or be bound to endoplasmic reticulum
Neural tissue
Used for sensor, and implementation of messages.
Muscular tissue
used for structure, support and motion.
Epithelial tissue
uninterrupted layer of cells that covers body surfaces, lines body cavities and forms glands.
Connective tissue
connects body parts, fills spaces, supports other tissues.
What are the functions of epithelia tissue?
1. Barrier (protection)
2. Secretion (glands)
3. Transport across an epithelium
4. Absorptionfrom the lumen (intestine)
5. Detection of sensations (special epithelia)
Surface epithelia basement membrane
1. Basement membrane: thin sheet of collagen and glycoproteins produced by epithelial cells and fibroblasts.
What are the three types of surface epithelia linings?
1. Endothelium: very thin single layer of simple squamous epithelium lines entire circulatory system - heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, sinusoids, lymphatics.
2. Mesothelium: thin layer that lines lines walls and covers contents of closed body cavitie
Simple epithelium
Single cell layer
Stratified epithelium
more than one cell layer
Squamous
Flat-shaped epithelia cell.
Cuboidal
Square-shaped epithelial cell.
Columnar
Column-shaped epithelial cell
Surface characteristics of epithelia
Microvilli: increase surface area. Located in intestine, plasma surface of eggs, cell surface of white blood cells
Cilia: hairlike projections used for moving particulates
Flagella: tail-like projection. locomotion and sense organ. 9+2 of microtubules cal
Connective tissue fibers
Collagen: thick structural fibers cross each other, NO branch.
Reticular: form supporting framework, irregular anastomising network
Elastic: delicate threadlike branching strands
Types of Connective Tissue Proper (CT Proper)
Loose: areolar. individual elastic fibers are easily seen (fills in spaces of body just deep to skin)
Dense: contains more fibers and fewer cells than loose tissue (make it resistant to stress)
Reticular: fibers form an irregular anastomosing network (str
Dense Connective Tissue (Dense CT) types
1. Dense Regular Connective Tissue: arranged in parallel resists stress and stretching in one direction.
b) 2 types
i) Collagenous: ligaments & aponeuroses
ii) Elastic: thin sheets or membranes in large blood vessels, ligaments of vertebral column
2. Dens
Types of membranes in macroanatomy
Adventitia: layers of connective tissue that connects and binds some internal organs (esophagus, blood vessels)
Serous membrane (serosa): thick membrane; connective tissue covered by mesothelium. Secretes serous fluid.
Mucous membrane (mucosa): lines cavi
Central nervous system (CNS)
Brain and spinal cord. Integrate and coordinate neural signals and perform higher mental functions.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Located outside dorsal cavity. Peripheral nerves (cranial and spinal), ganglia, receptors and enteric plexus. Carries signals to and from CNS.
Sensory nerve fibers
Receive stimuli. Conduct impulses from receptors (sensors) to CNS.
Motor fibers
Respond to stimuli. Conduct impulses from CNS to the effectors.
Motor division of nervous system
Consists of:
SNS-somatic (voluntary): conscious control, which controls skeletal muscles
ANS-autonomic (involuntary or visceral): controls cardiac muscle, smooth muscles and glands. ANS is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
Sympathetic Nervous System
Fight or flight
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Rest and digest
Neuron
Processing cell. Signals can go through the neuron only one way: dendrites, soma, axon hillock, axon, axon terminal, synapse.
Soma (body of neuron)
Center of a neuron, contains nissl bodies, nucleus, has dendrites extending from it.
Dendrites
receive nerve impulses and brings information to soma.
Axon
Carries nerve impulses to the synaptic bulbs.
Axon terminals
Has synaptic bulbs (knobs/boutons). Takes action potential and causes the release of neurotransmitters.
Nissl bodies
Large granules that are rough endoplasmic reticulum, with free ribosomes, and are the site of protein synthesis in a neuron.
Axon hillock
Valley before the axon where an action potential is initiated. Higher density of voltage-gated ion channels than is found in the rest of the neuron.
Neurotransmitter
Chemical released by synaptic bulbs in presynaptic neurons into synapse causing reaction on membrane of postsynaptic neuron
Synapse (neural)
Gap between terminal branches of one neuron and dendrites of another
Presynaptic (neuron)
Before neurotransmitter release. Signal-passing neuron.
Postsynaptic (neuron)
After neurotransmitter release. May be another neuron, muscular cell or the cell of glandular epithelium.
Name both CNS and PNS glia.
CNS: astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells
PNS: Schwann and satellite cells (Similar role to astrocytes of the CNS)
Astrocytes
Glia cells that provide structure and support; form vascular feet around blood vessels and next to pia mater (blood brain barrier); form scar tissue after CVI or TBI. Control the environment surrounding neurons: ions, neurotransmitters, control flow in an
Oligodendrocytes
Make myelin sheath around axons in CNS.
Microglia
Phagocytes in neural tissue. Cleanse and removal of debris.
Ependymal cells
Provide support. Cuboidal epithelial cells; form internal membrane of spinal cord central canal, ventricles of brain, external membrane next to pia. Some are ciliated and assist in movement of CSF; along with capillary they form choroid plexus.
Tanicytes
Specialized ependimal cells that supply neurosecteretory cells in hypothalamus.
Schwann cells
Make myelin sheath around axons in PNS.
Astrocytoma
over 80% of neural tumors are overgrowths of astrocytes; usually seen in traumatic brain injuries
Describe the anatomy of a nerve.
1. Each nerve is a cord-like structure that contains many axons (fibers)
2. Within a nerve, each axon is surrounded by endoneurium
3. Axons are bundled together into groups called fascicles, and each fascicle is wrapped by perineurium 4. 4. Finally, entir
Sensory (afferent) nerves
Receives impulses. Conduct signals from sensory neurons to the central nervous system (ex. from mechanoreceptors in skin).
Motor (efferent) nerves
Acts upon impulses. Conduct signals from the central nervous system to their target muscles and glands.
Interneurons (neurons of association)
Connects impulses between sensory and motor neurons
Multipolar neurons
Have many dendrites and one axon. They are usually neurons of association or motor neurons. (usually found in CNS)
Bipolar neurons
Sends impulses up or down. Has two poles. Found in sensory organs.
Unipolar neuron
Receives a nerve impulse and sends out in one direction (usually found in sensory system)
Cerebral cortex
Layers from skull to deep part of brain: pia mater>gray matter>white matter
Role in complex brain functions including memory, attention, perceptual awareness, "thinking", language and consciousness
Gray matter
Contains collections of neuron cell bodies
Segmental Demyelination - type of demyelination focused around peripheral nerves
Axonal Degeneration - axons degenerate in response to injury usually after demyelination
Reinnervation - restoration of nerve funct
White matter
Collection of myelinated axons
Define and explain the meninges in cranium
Pia Mater: deepest layer of the meninges
Subarachnoid space: filled with CSF
Arachnoid mater: spider-like fibrous/elastic tissue
Subdural space: space between arachnoid and dura maters (subdural hematoma)
Dura mater: outermost meninge with 2 layers - exte
Segmental Demyelination
Injury to Schwann cell leads to loss of myelin.
Axonal degeneration
Injury to axon which causes rapid separation of the proximal (the part nearer the cell body) and distal ends. Causes axon to degenerate.
Reinnervation
Restoration of nerve function to part from which it was once lost (usually to an organ or muscle). Neurons can regenerate if the Schwann cells are realligned.
Myopathy
Degeneration of muscle. Muscle weakness from loss of function. Lack of innervation.
Anatomical position
Palms forward standing staight up.
Supine position
Laying down on your back
Prone position
Laying down on your abdomen
Cephalic
Head
Crainial
Skull
Facial
Face
Frontal
Front of body
Orbital
Eye
Otic
Ear
Buccal
Cheek
Nasal
Nose
Oral
Mouth
Mental
Chin
Cervical
Neck
Axillary
Armpit
Brachial
Upper arm
Antebracheal
Forearm
Carpal
Wrist
Palmar
Palm
Manual
Hand
Dorsum
Back of hand
Digital/phalangeal
Fingers/toes
Sternal
Chest
Occipital
Back of the head
Acromial
Shoulder
Scapular
Shoulder blade
Mammary
Breasts
Umbilical
Near the umbilicus/naval/belly button
Coxal
Hip
Inguinal
Pubic/groin
Dorsal
Back
Sacral
Between hips
Gluteal
Buttock
Femoral
Thigh
Patellar
Kneecap
Poplieal
Hollow behind the knee
Crural
Front of leg
Sural
Calf
Pedal
Foot
Plantar
Sole
Calcaneal
Heel
Superior
Top/above structure
Median plane
Midsaggital
Medial
Towards midline
Lateral
Away from midline
Proximal
Closer to trunk
Distal
Farther from body trunk
Inferior
Below/bottom structure
Posterior
Behind structure
Superficial
Close to skin/surface
Deep
Farther from skin/surface
Plane
Imaginary flat surface that passes through the body
Section
Type of cut. One of the two surfaces (pieces) that results when the body is cut by a plane passing through it.
Median or midsagittal plane
Splits body into left and right halves.
Parasagittal plane
Parallel to midsagittal and splits body into left and right halves
Coronal (frontal) plane
Cuts body into anterior and posterior segments
Transverse plane
Cuts a cross section into top/bottom (superior/inferior)
Oblique plane
Cuts at an angle. Not parallel to any plane.
Symmetrical/paired
Occurs equally (ex. 2 lungs, 2 kidneys)
Bilateral
Both sides of the body
Unilateral
One side of the body
Ipsilateral
Same side of the body
Contralateral
opposite sites of the body
Thoracic cavity
Upper chest. Above abdomen
Abdominal cavity
Contains visceral organs
Ventral cavity
Front cavity
Dorsal cavity
Contains brain and spinal cord
Crainial cavity
Houses the brain
Spinal (vertebral canal)
Houses the spinal cord
Meninges
Protective layers surrounding brain and spinal cord
Serous membranes
Membranes that have a double layer and provide lubrication:
Two layers:
1. parietal layer-outer layer/lining of cavity
2. visceral layer closest to organs
Pleura
Serous membrane around lungs.
Pericardium
Serous membrane around heart
Peritoneum
Serous membrane around abdominal viscera
Describe the two layers of a serous capsule.
Visceral layer: closest to the organ
Parietal: lines the cavity
Space between: serous fluid
Abdominal quadrants of abdominopelvic cavity
Defined by two planes: median and transumbilical, passing through the belly button at a right angle to median: RUQ -right upper quadrant, LUQ -left upper quadrant, RLQ -right lower quadrant and LLQ -left lower quadrant
Abdominal regions of abdominopelvic cavity
Abdominal regions are defined by:
1. 2 vertical midclavicular planes - cuts along clavicle
2. 2 subcostal planes: 10thcostal cartilage (rib)
3. 1 transtubercular plane: cuts through L5
4. RH -right hypochondriac, E-epigastric, LH -left hypochondriac, RL -
Thoracic cavity
Filled with lungs and mediasinum (houses heart, esophagus, trachea, important nerves and blood vessels)
Mediastinum
Space between lungs. Houses heart, esophagus, trachea, important nerves and blood vessels.
Flexion
Decreases angle between parts
Extension
Increases angle between parts
Abduction
Away from midline/body
Adduction
towards midline/body
Medial rotation
Rotating towards median/center of body
Lateral rotation
Rotating away from median/center of body
Circumduction
Making circles/circular rotation of ball and socket joints
Supination
Palm down to palm up
Pronation
Palm up to palm down.
Retrusion
Move part of body posterior/sinking in
Protrusion
Move body part anterior/sticking out
Elevation
Raised area/movement in superior (upward) direction
Depression
Sunken area/move body part in inferior (downward) direction
Inferior nasal concha
Lower bones of inside the nose. There are 2
Lacrimal bone
Medial bones within the orbital. Think of lacrimal glands that produce tears.
Mandible
Lower jaw
Maxilla
Upper jaw
Nasal
Top of the nose
Palantine
Bone immediately posterior to the maxillae
Vomer
Small bone at the middle bottom of the nasal area. Looks like a spoon.
Zygomatic bones
Cheek bones
Ethmoid bone
Bone above the vomer, posterior to the nasal bone
Frontal bone
Covers the frontal lobe of brain
Occipital
Covers occipital lobe of brain
Parietal bone
Top of the skull
Sphenoid bone
behind ethmoid bone; looks like a butterfly
Temporal bone
Bone near the ear; covers the temporal lobe of brain.
Occipital condyles
Cranium articulates with vertebral column; 2 large protuberances.
Mastoid process
Located on temporal bone. Attachment for jaw muscles; bilateral attachments behind ear
Coronoid process
Anterior portion of top of mandible. Attachment of temporalis muscle. Part of mandible and is thinner than condyloid process.
Condyloid process
Posterior portion of the upper ramus of the mandible. Part of mandible and is thicker than coronoid process.
Mental protuberance
Chin. Part of mandible that protrudes anteriorlly.
Zygomatic arch
arches of cheeks
Styloid process
Looks like a spike posterior and inferior to zygomatic arches. Slender pointed piece of bone just below ear and projects down and forward from the inferior surface of the temporal bone. Serves as an anchor point for several muscles associated with tongue
Superior orbital fissure
Fissure above orbital. Middle cranial fossa>superior orbital fissure>superior ophthalmic vein+oculomotor nerve (III); trochlear nerve (IV); lacrimal, frontal and nasociliary branches of ophthalmic nerve (V1); abducent nerve (VI)
Inferior orbital fissure
Fissure below the orbital. Sphenoid and maxilla>inferior orbital fissure>inferior ophthalmic veins+infraorbital artery; infraorbital vein; zygomatic nerve and infraorbital nerve of maxillary nerve (V2); orbital branches of pterygopalatine ganglion
Sella tursica
Small ridge anterior to foramen magnum. Seat of the saddle is known as: hypophyseal fossa and holds pituitary gland in a depression in the body of the sphenoid bone.
Tuberculum sellae>hypophyseal fossa>dorsum sellae
Posterior fossa
Rear 1/3 of cranium. Contains internal auditory meatus; facial canal; stylomastoid foramen (CN-VII,VIII); jugular foramen (CN-IX,X,XI); foramen magnum (CN-XI); hypoglossal canal (CN-XII); condylar canal; mastoid foramen to nasal cavity: nasolacrimal canal
Anterior fossa
Front 1/3 of cranium
Middle fossa
Middle 1/3 of cranium
Name contents of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Is located outside dorsal cavity. Consists of peripheral nerves (cranial and spinal), ganglia, receptors and enteric plexus. The function is to carry signals to and from CNS.
Enteric Plexus
separate portion of PNS that controls GI system
How many crainial nerves are there?
12 pairs of crainial nerves (CN): I - Olfactory nerve; II - Optic nerve; III - Oculomotor nerve; IV - Trochlear nerve/pathic nerve; V - Trigeminal nerve/dentist nerve; VI - Abducens nerve; VII - Facial nerve; VIII - Vestibulocochlear nerve/Auditory nerve;
How many spinal nerves are there?
31 left-right pairs of spinal nerves: 8 cervical spinal nerve pairs (C1-C8), 12 thoracic pairs (T1-T12), 5 lumbar pairs (L1-L5), 5 sacral pairs (S1-S5), and 1 coccygeal pair
Name the contents of the central nervous system and what cavity it's located.
Brain and spinal cord occupy dorsal cavity and constitute CNS.
Brain: in cranial cavity.
Spinal cord: seated in spinal cavity (AKA vertebral canal or spinal canal)
Cauda equina
Bundle of spinal nerve roots
Filum terminale
Connects bottom of vertebrae to end of spinal cord where it terminates in this fibrous extension.
Conus Medullaris
End of the spinal cord at approximately L2.
Conus medullaris>cauda equina>filum terminale
Name and describe the layers of spinal cord meninges
Vertebral canal>epidural space: adipose and blood vessels>dura mater (outermost layer)>dura-arachnoid interface: no natural space between these two regions>subdural space: artificial space created by the separation of the arachnoid mater from the dura>ara
Explain the layers of cranial dura mater sinuses
Dural reflections (infoldings): divide the cranial cavity into compartments and act as seat belts supporting parts of the brain
Falx cerebri: strong sickle like fold of dura mater that sits in the longitudinal fissure between left and right hemispheres
Fa
Dural venous sinuses
Endotherlial-lined spaces between the periosteal and meningeal layers of the dura. They form where dural infolding attach.
Name and describe the major parts of the brain
Cerebrum: cognitive processing
Corpus Collosum: interhemispheric communication
Cerebellum: proprioception, below occipital lobe
Thalamus: sensory filtering. Relay center
Hypothalamus: sensory regulation. Homeostasis
Pituitary Gland: small master gland by
Describe CSF circulatory pathway.
2 Lateral Ventricles>intraventricular foramen (foramen monroe)>cerebrum (upper brain contains the lobes)>cerebral aqueduct (aqueduct of sylvius): connects 3rd and 4th ventricles>fourth ventricle: CSF drains out through 1 median (foramen magendie) and 2 la
Where is CSF produced?
Produced in ventricles by choroid plexus
What happens to excess CSF and define arachnoid granulation.
Excess CSF drains into superior sagital sinus where it is returned to blood circulation through filtration via arachnoid villi.
Meningitis
Inflammation of the meninges
What are the differences between obstructive and non-obstructive hydrocephalus? What is the treatment?
Obstructive hydrocephalus: blockage caused by mechanical or disease
Non-obstructive hydrocephalus: excess CSF production
Treatments:
1. hydrocephalous shunt (ventriculoperitoneal shunt): drains CSF from subararachnoid space and pumps it into peritoneal ca
Describe the different types of intracranial hemorrages
Classified by location between meninges: epidural, subdural, subarachnoid
Subdural hematoma: bleeding into the subdural space (can cause increased ICP)
Subarachnoid hematoma: bleeding into subarachnoid space (usually presents with vomiting, LOC, sometimes
Spinal tap (lumbar puncture)
Diagnostic procedure where a needle is inserted into spinal column to obtain CSF sample from subarachnoid space usually at the levels of L3-L5.
Epidural block
Anesthesia is injected into epidural space between lumbar or sacral canal. Inhibits sensory signals coming from peripheral nerves before entering dural sac.
Briefly describe flow of CSF through ventricles
Choroid plexus>lateral ventricles>interventricular foramina>third ventricle>cerebral aqueduct>fourth ventricle>2 lateral apetures & 1 median aperture>spinal cord subarachnoid space>superior saggital sinus>blood circulation
Describe the difference between three types of muscle tissue: ability to regenerate, voluntary vs. involuntary, satellite cells.
Smooth:
1. No striations
2. No voluntary control
3. can regenerate
4. located in blood vessels, viscera, skin
5. mesoderm origin
6. Spindle-shaped cells with single nucleus
Skeletal:
1. Striated
2. Voluntary control
3. limited regeneration
4. located ever
Identify three types of muscular tissue cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle and smooth muscle.
-Histology: look at tissue surrounding, too muscle: connective tissue; contrast of nuclei
Smooth muscle: fibers close together with centrally located nuclei; look for lack of striations, density
Skeletal muscle: fibers close together but nuclei are periph
Identify the parts of the skeletal muscle: muscular fibers, endomysium, perimysium, epimysium, tendon, belly of the muscle.
Epimysium: layer of dense connective tissue covering entire muscle
Perimysium: less dense CT, it surrounds fascicles(bundles of muscle fibers (cells)
Endomysium: composed of loose reticular fibers, surrounds individual muscle cells (fibers)
Epimysium> sur
Describe and identify the features of myofibril: sarcomere, thick and thin filaments, A-band, I band, M-line, Z-line, sarcoplasmic reticulum, T-tubules, triad, motor end plate.
1. Myofibril: thick/thin filaments organized in repeating structures called sarcomeres
2. Thin filaments: made of actin, they are attached to Z-line.
I-band (light stripe): made of thin filaments
3. Thick filaments: made of myosin, they are attached to M-
Compare and contrast red vs. white muscle fibers.
Red and white fibers in skeletal muscle:
Red Fibers: high levels of myoglobin, many mitochondria; greater local capillary density
White Fibers: low levels of myoglobin; glycogen storage; low capillary density; few mitochondria
Differentiate between motor pool and motor unit.
Motor unit (MU):
1. all fibers controlled by same neural cell
2. AP reaches fibers all contract simultaneously
3. few to few hundred muscular fibers in one motor unit
4. more motor units involved in contraction> stronger contraction
Motor neuron pool (MNP
Describe and identify neuromuscular junction.
1. Synapse between axon terminal knob and sarcolemma
2. Sarcolemma has folded appearance to increase the receptor covered surface, this site is referred as motor end plate.
3. AP generated on motor end plate propagates along entire sarcolemma and T-tubes
Discuss clinical applications of muscle anatomy: myasthenia gravis, muscular dystrophy, myocardial infarction and necrosis.
1. Myasthemia gravis: muscle weakness caused by circulating antibodies that block acetylcholine receptors. Inhibits excitatory effects of acetylcholine on nicotinic receptors; treated> cholinesterase inhibitors
2. Muscular dystrophy: group of muscle disea
Be able to identify the components of the spinal cord: dorsal, ventral and lateral grey horns, anterior, posterior and lateral white columns, grey commissure and central canal. Describe their functional significance and differences.
1. Central canal: filled with CSF
2. Gray comissure: strip of gray matter; connects left/right halves of spinal cord and surrounds central canal
3. Posterior (dorsal) gray horns: receive sensory information
Anterior (ventral) gray horns: contain somatic m
Explain the functional significance of the dorsal root ganglia.
The bodies of the sensory neurons are residing in the dorsal root ganglia. There is one such ganglion for every spinal nerve. The sensory neurons, which are located in these ganglia are unique because unlike most neurons they are unipolar.
Explain the roles of white matter and gray matter in processing and relaying sensory information and motor commands.
White matter (myelinated axons) tracts propagate sensory impulses from receptors to the brain and motor impulses from the brain to the effectors.
Gray matter (bodies of neural cells) receives and integrates incoming and outgoing information.
Define contralateral control in nervous system
90% of upper motor neuron axons (UMN) decussate to contralateral side in medulla oblongata; remaining 10% eventually cross over at spinal cord level when they synapse with an interneuron or lower motor neuron (LMN)
Identify and differentiate between the three somatic sensory pathways: Dorsal Column - Medial lemniscus pathway, anterolateral spinothalamic tracts, spinocerebellar tracts
Somatosensory system: division allowing perception of different sensations from the body; all signals relayed to cerebellum for constant feedback regarding body movements via three somatosensory (afferent) pathways:
1. Dorsal Column - Medial Lemniscus Pat
Discuss the difference between sensory and motor pathways. Rationalize the types of function losses from spinal cord injuries.
Somatic Motor Pathway
1. Movement Initiation controlled by prefrontal cortex; supplementary motor area; premotor cortex; basal ganglia
2. Signal is communicated to motor cortex
3. Motor cortex sends nervous impulses to muscles required to perform action;
Where would the sensory loss be, if you cut:
1) The left gracile fasciculus? 2) The left dorsal columns (gracile & cuneate)? 3) The right medial lemniscus, in the medulla? 4) The left internal capsule?
1) The left leg and lower left trunk. 2) The left side of the body below the level of the cut. 3) The entire left body, from the neck down. 4) The entire right body (including the face, because the face joins the pathway in the Pons)
Differentiate the major areas of the cerebral cortex: somatosensory cortex, motor cortex and selected Brodmann's areas.
1. Cerebral cortex: thin layer of gray matter overlying white matter; cerebral cortex, cerebellar cortex
-Gyri: convex folds
-Sulci or fissures: concave grooves
-left & right cerebral hemispheres divided into 5 lobes: -frontal, parietal, temporal, occipit
Somatosensory system
Nervous system division allowing the perception of different sensations from the body (e.g. light touch, pain, pressure, temperature and proprioception).
Name the parts of the spinal cord
Labeled parts of the spinal cord
Label the missing parts of the somatic fiber pathway
Labeled parts of the somatic fiber pathway
Label the components of the spinal cord
Labeled components of spinal cord
Label the brain and cranial nerve anatomy
Labels for brain and cranial anatomy
Label Brodman's sensory areas of the cerebral cortex
Labeled Brodman's sensory areas of cerebral cortex
Label Brodman's motor areas of the cerebral cortex
Labeled Brodman's motor areas of cerebral cortex
Define Brodmann's areas
Assigned numbers to areas with different functions; size of area is proportional to number of receptors to corresponding body part rather than size of body part
Label the muscle fiber structures
Labeled muscle fiber structure
Identify the parts of the skeletal muscle
Action of the skeletal muscle
When the muscular fibers contract within muscle they pull connective tissue, which is pulling the tendon that pulls the bone (or another organ attached to the tendon). When muscular fibers relax the elasticity of connective tissue returns the muscle to th
Compare and contrast the origin and insertion of muscles
-Origin and insertion of the muscle are the sites where connective tissue attaches muscle to the bone.
-Insertion: more movable part; attaches to structure that will be moved by muscle contraction
-Origin: less movable part
Compare and contrast tendons vs. ligaments and aponeuroses
Tendon: attach skeletal muscles to bones
Aponeuroses: attach muscle to muscle
Ligaments: attach bone to bone; visceral organs to the abdominal wall, or to each other.
Identify types of movements skeletal muscles perform
Synergists: muscles that have the same action
Antagonists: muscles that perform opposite movements
Name the muscles of facial expression
Galea aponeurotica (epicranial aponeuroses) connects frontalis and occipitalis, orbicularis ocili, levator labii superioris, zygomaticus major and minor, risorius, platisma, depressor anguli oris, sternoclaidomastoid, mentalis, depressor labii inferioris,
Identify the muscles of facial expression
Identify the facial expression muscles
Occipitofrontalis: origin, insertion, main action(s)
Frontal belly:
-Epicranial aponeurosis
-Skin and subcutaneous tissue of eyebrows and forehead
-Elevates eyebrows and wrinkles skin of forehead; protracts scalp (indicating surprise or curiosity)
Occipital belly
-Lateral two thirds of superior nuchal line
Orbicularis oculi (orbital sphincter): origin, insertion, main action(s)
-Medial orbital margin; medial palpebral ligament; lacrimal bone
-Skin around margin of orbit; superior and inferior tarsi (tarsal plates)
-Closes eyelids: palpebral part does so gently; orbital part tightly (winking)
Orbicularis oris (oral sphincter): origin, insertion, main action(s)
-Medial maxilla and mandible; deep surface of peri-oral skin; angle of mouth
-Mucous membrane of lips
-tonus: closes mouth; phasic: compresses and protrudes lips (kissing) or resists distension (when blowing)
Buccinator (cheek muscle): origin, insertion, main action(s)
-Mandible, alveolar processes of maxilla and mandible, pterygomandibular raphe
-Angle of mouth (modiolus); orbicularis oris
-Presses cheek against molar teeth; works with tongue to keep food between occlusal surfaces and out of oral vestibule; resists dis
Platysma: origin, insertion, main action(s)
-Subcutaneous tissue of infraclavicular and supraclavicular regions
-Base of mandible; skin of cheek and lower lip; angle of mouth; orbicularis oris
-Depresses mandible (against resistance); tenses skin of inferior face and neck (conveying tension and str
Zygomaticus Major and Zygomaticus Minor: origin, insertion, main action(s)
1. Major
-Zygomatic arch
-Angle of the mouth
-Elevates angle of the mouth (smile)
2. Minor
-Zygomatic arch
-Upper lip
-Elevates upper lip
Risorius: origin, insertion, main action(s)
-Fascia (connective tissue) of the cheek near ear
-Angle of the mouth
-Retracts angle of the mouth (false smile)
Depressor anguli oris: origin, insertion, main action(s)
-Mandible
-Angle of the mouth
-Depresses angle of the mouth
Mentalis: origin, insertion, main action(s)
-Mandible
-Lower lip (inferior)
-Protracts lower lip
What cranial nerves innervate the facial muscles?
(CN VII)
-via its posterior auricular branch
-via temporal, zygomatic, buccal, marginal mandibular, or cervical branches of parotid plexus
Name the muscles of mastication
masseter, temporalis, pterygoid medial and pterygoid lateral
Identify the muscles of mastication
Masseter: origin, insertion, main action(s)
-Zygomatic arch
-Angle of the mandible
-Elevates and protracts mandible
Temporalis: origin, insertion, main action(s)
-Temporal bone
-Coronoid process of the mandible
-Elevates mandible
Pterygoid medial: origin, insertion, main action(s)
-Pterygoid pcs of sphenoid
-Medial surface of mandibular angle and ramus
-Elevates and protracts mandible; unilateral - side to side
Pterigoid lateral: origin, insertion, main action(s)
-Pterygoid process of sphenoid
-Mandibular condyle
-Depresses and protracts mandible; unilateral - side to side
What cranial nerve innervates the muscles of mastication?
Mandibular nerve branch of trigeminal (CN V)
Name the muscles that move the tongue
Genioglossus, Hyoglossus, Styloglossus, Palatoglossus. Intristic muscles: vertical, longitudinal and transverse fibers.
Identify the genioglossus muscle
Genioglossus: origin, insertion, main action(s)
-Posterior mental protuberance of the mandible
-Ventral surface of the tongue
-Bilateral- depresses and protrudes the tongue; unilateral - draws tongue ipsilateraly
What cranial nerves innervate the muscles that move the tongue?
CN XII: Hypoglossal nerve
Palatoglossus: Vagus nerve (CN X).
What muscle moves the head?
Sternocleidomastoid muscle moves head
Identify the sternoclaidomastoid muscle.
Sternoclaidomastoid: origin, insertion, main action(s)
-Manubrium of the sternum; medial clavicle
-Mastoid process
-Bilateral- flexes cervical vertebrae and extends head; unilateral - flexes the neck laterally and rotates face to contralateral side
What cranial nerve innervates the sternoclaidomastoid muscle?
Receives motor signals from Accessory (spinal accessory) nerve (CN XI). Sensations from this muscle perceived via cervical plexus.
List twelve pairs of cranial nerves and their locations
I - Olfactory
II - Optic
III -Oculomotor
IV - Trochlear
V - Trigeminal
VI - Abducens
VII - Facial
VIII - Vestibulocochlear
IX - Glossopharyngeal
X - Vagus
XI - Accessory (Spinal Accessory)
XII - Hypoglossal
Explain functions and types of twelve pairs of cranial nerves
I - Olfactory: special sensory (smell).
II - Optic: special sensory (vision)
III -Oculomotor: somatic motor, visceral motor, general sensory (proprioceptive).
IV - Trochlear: somatic motor.
V - Trigeminal: mixed - general sensory and somatic motor.
VI - A
Cranial nerves
-Contain sensory or motor fibers, or combination
-Innervate muscles or glands; carry impulses from sensory receptors
-emerge from foramina
-Carry one or more of five main functional components:
1. Motor fibers innervating voluntary (striated) muscle; CN I
Discuss clinical applications of cranial nerves impairment: Olfactory Nerve: (CN I)
-Transmits the sense of smell; regenerative
-Temporary anosmia resulting from nasal mucosa inflammation and age
-Injury to nasal mucosa, olfactory nerve fibers, olfactory bulbs, or olfactory tracts may also impair smell
-Head injuries olfactory bulbs may
Discuss clinical applications of cranial nerves impairment: Optic nerve (CN II)
-Passes posteromedially in orbit, exiting through optic canal (optic foramen) to enter middle cranial fossa; forms optic chiasm
-Nasal (medial) half of each retina decussate in chiasm and join uncrossed fibers from temporal (lateral) half of retina to for
Discuss clinical applications of cranial nerves impairment: Occulomotor Nerve (CN III)
-Originates from mesencephalon
-Somatic motor innervation to four of six extra-ocular muscles: superior, medial, and inferior rectus and inferior oblique; and to the levator palpebrae superioris
a) proprioceptive innervation to those as well
b) visceral (
Discuss clinical applications of cranial nerves impairment: Trochlear Nerve (CN IV)
-Originates between mesencephalon and pons
-provides somatic motor and proprioceptive innervation to contralateral superior oblique
-Injury:
a) CN IV is rarely paralyzed alone
b) Diplopia (double vision) when looking down; occurs because superior oblique
Discuss clinical applications of cranial nerves impairment: Trigeminal Nerve (CN V1, V2, V3)
-Originates from pons
-Largest cranial nerve; fibers extend from pons to face and form three divisions: ophthalmic, maxillary; mandibular
-General sensory nerves of face; transmit afferent impulses
-general sensory nerve for head: face, teeth, mouth, nasa
Discuss clinical applications of cranial nerves impairment: Abducens Nerve (CN VI)
-Originates between pons and medulla
-provides somatic motor to and proprioceptive information from one extra-ocular muscle> lateral rectus
-Injury to CN VI
a) has long intracranial course; easily stretched when intracranial pressure rises compressing CN
Discuss clinical applications of cranial nerves impairment: Facial Nerve (CN VII)
-Originates between pons and medulla
-at parotid gland it divides into five major branches:
1. Somatic (Branchial) Motor
a) supplies the striated muscles of facial expression
2. Visceral (Parasympathetic) Motor
a) parasympathetic fibers of CN VII provide
Discuss clinical applications of cranial nerves impairment: Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)
-Originates between pons and medulla
-Special sensory nerve of hearing and equilibrium
-Nerve emerges from pons and medulla junction and enters internal acoustic meatus> separates into vestibular and cochlear nerves
-Vestibular nerve: equilibrium
-Cochlea
Discuss clinical applications of cranial nerves impairment: Glossopharyngeal Nerve (CN IX)
-Emerges from lateral aspect of medulla and passes anterolaterally to leave cranium through jugular foramen
-Somatic (Branchial) Motor: innervates stylopharyngeus
-Visceral (Parasympathetic) Motor: innervate parotid gland
-Somatic (General) Sensory: phary
Discuss clinical applications of cranial nerves impairment: Vagus Nerve (CN X)
-Rootlets from lateral aspect of medulla that merge and leave cranium through jugular foramen positioned between CN IX and CN XI
-Somatic (Branchial) Motor fibers supply:
a) Pharyngeal muscles via pharyngeal plexus with fibers of glossopharyngeal nerve
b)
Discuss clinical applications of cranial nerves impairment: Accessory Nerve (CN XI)
-somatic motor to sternocleidomastoid (SCM) and trapezius muscles
-Injury:
-Because of its nearly subcutaneous passage through the posterior cervical region, CN XI is susceptible to injury during surgical procedures such as lymph node biopsy, cannulation
Discuss clinical applications of cranial nerves impairment: Hypoglossal Nerve (CN XII)
-somatic motor to intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of tongue: styloglossus, hyoglossus, genioglossus
-motor nerve
-several rootlets from medulla and leaves cranium through hypoglossal canal
-Injury:
a) paralyzes ipsilateral half of tongue
b) tongue atrophi
Which foramina do the cranial nerves exit?
Cribriform plate (Olfactory), Optic canal (Optic), Superior Orbital Fissure (Oculomotor), Superior Orbital Fissure (Trochlear), Superior Orbital Fissure (Trigeminal - Ophthalmic), Foramen Rotundum (Trigeminal - Maxillary), Foramen Ovale (Trigeminal - Mand
Labeled cranial nerves
Labeled muscles of facial expression
muscles the move the neck
muscles of mastication
What cranial nerves have parasympathetic function?
3, 7, 5, 10