geography
the study of the distribution and interaction of physical and human features on the earth
absolute location
the exact place on earth where a geographic feature is found
relative location
describes a place in relation to other places around it
hemisphere
each half of the globe
equator
the imaginary line that encircles the globe, dividing the earth into northern and southern halves
prime meridian
the imaginary line at zero meridian used to measure longitude east to west, and dividing the earth's east and west halves; also called the Greenwish Meridian
latitude
a set of imaginary lines that run parallel to the equator, and that are used in locating places north or south
longitude
a set of imaginary lines that go around the earth over the poles, dividing it east and west
globe
a three-dimensional representation of the earth
map
a two-dimensional graphic representation of selected parts of the earth's surface
cartographer
a mapmaker
map projection
a way of mapping the earth's surface that reduces distrotion caused by converting three dimensions into two dimensions
topographic map
a general reference map; a representation of natural and man-made features on the earth
Landsat
a series of satellites that orbit more than 100 miles above the earth; each satellite picks up data in an area 115 miles wide
GIS
technology that uses digital map information to create a databank; different "data layers" can be combined to produce specialized maps; allos geographers to analyze different aspects of a specific place to solve problems
GPS
provides the absolute location to the user
magnetic compass
accurately determines direction
theodolite
type of surveying instrument that precisely measures angles and distances on the earth
physical map
shows landforms and bodies of water found in a specific area
political map
shows features on the earth's surface that humans have created
continent
a landmass above water on the earth
solar system
consists of the sun and nine knokwn planets, as well as other celestial bodies that orbit the sun
core
the earth's center, made up of iron and nickel; the inner core is solid, and the outer core is liquid
mantle
a rock layer about 1,800 miles thick that is between the earth's crust and the earth's core
magma
the molten rock material formed when solid rock in the earth's mantle or crust melts
crust
the thin rock layer making up the earth's surface
atmosphere
the layers of gases immediately surrounding the earth
lithosphere
the solid rock portion of the earth's surface
hydrosphere
the waters comprising the earth's surface, including oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, and vapor in the atmosphere
biosphere
all the parts of the earth where plants and animals live, including the atmosphere, the lithosphere, and the hydrosphere
continental drift
the ypothesis that all continents were once joined into a supercontinent that split apart over millions of years
hydrologic cycle
the continuous circulation of water among the atmosphere, the oceans, and the earth
drainage basin
an area drained by a major river and its tributaries
ground water
the water held under the earth's surface, often in and around the pores of rock
water table
the level at which rock is saturated
landform
a naturaly formed feature on the surface of the earth
continental shelf
the earth's surface from the edge of a continent to the deep part of the ocean
relief
the difference in elevation of a landform from the lowest point to the highest point
topography
the combined characteristics of landforms and their distribution in a region
tectonic plate
an enormous moving shelf that forms the earth's crust
earthquake
a sometimes violent movement of the earth, produced when tectonic plates grind or slip past each other at a fault
seismograph
a device that measures the size of the waves created by an earthquake
epicenter
the point on the earth's surface that corresponds to the location in the earth where an earthquake begins
Richter scale
a way to measure information collected by seismographs to determine the relative strength of an earthquake
tsunami
a giant ocean wave, caused by an underwater earthquake or volcanic eruption, with great destructive power
volcano
a natural event, formed when magma, gases, and water from the lower part of the crust or mantle collect in underground chambers and eventually erupt and pour out of cracks in the earth's surface
lava
magma that has reached the earth's surface
Ring of Fire
the chain of volcanoes that lines the Pacific Rim
weathering
physical and chemical processes that change the characteristics of rock on or near the earth's surface, occuring slowly over many years
sediment
small pieces of rock produced by weathering processes
mechanical weathering
natural processes that break rock into smaller pieces
chemical weathering
a process that changes rock into a new substance through interactions among elements in the air or water and the minerals in the rock
erosion
the result of weathering on matter, created by the action of wind, water, ice, or gravity
delta
a fan-like landform made of deposited sediment, left by a river that slows as it enters the ocean
loess
wind-blown silt and clay sediment that produces very fertile soil
glacier
a large, long-lasting mass of ice that moves because of gravity
glaciation
the changing of landforms by slowly moving glaciers
moraine
a ridge or hill of rock carried and finally deposited by a glacier
humus
organic material in soil
solstice
either of two times of year when the sun's rays shine directly overhead at oon at the furthest points north or south, and that mark the beginning of summer and winter; in the Northern Hemisphere, the summer solstice is the longest day and the winter solst
equinox
each of the two days in a year on which day ad night are equal in lenght; marks the beginning of spring and autumn
weather
the condition of the atmosphere at a particular location and time
climate
the typical weather conditions at a particular location as observed over time
precipitation
falling water droplets in the form of rain, sleet, snow, or hail
rain shadow
the land on the leeward side of hills or mountains that gets little rain from the descending dry air
hurricane
a storm that forms over warm, tropical ocean waters
typhoon
a tropical storm, like a hurricane, that occurs in the wester Pacific
tornado
a powerful funnel-shaped column of spiraling air
blizzard
a heavy snowstorm with winds of more than 35 miles per hour and reduced visibility of less than one-quarter mile
drought
a long period without rain or with very minimal rainfall
convection
the transfer of heat in the atmosphere by upward motion of the air
El Nino
a weather pattern created by the warming of the waters off the west coast of south America, which pushes warm water and heavy rains toward the Americas and produces drought conditions in Australia and Asia
greenhouse effect
the layer of gases released by the burning of coal and petroleum that traps solar energy, causing global temperature to increase
tundra
the flat treeless lands forming a ring around the Arctic Ocean; the climate region of the Arctic Ocean
permafrost
permanently frozen ground
ecosystem
an interdependent community of plants and animals
biome
a regional ecosystem
deciduous
aa named characteristic of broadleaf trees, such as maple, oak, birch, and cottonwood
rain forest
a forest region located in the Tropical Zone with a heavy concentration of different species of broadleaf trees
coniferous
another word for needleleaf trees
savanna
the term for the flat, grassy, mostly treeless plains in the tropical grassland region
steppe
the term used for the temperate grassland region in the Northern Hemisphere
culture
the total of knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors shared by and passed on by members of a group
society
a group that shares a geographic region, a common language, and a sense of identity and culture
ethnic group
a group of people who share language, customs, and a common heritage
innovation
taking existing elements of society and creating something new to meet a need
diffusion
the spread of ideas, inventions, or patterns of behavior to different societies
cultural hearth
the heartland or place of origin of a major culture; a site of innovation from which basic ideas, materials, and technology diffuse to other cultures
acculturation
the cultural change that occus when individuals in a society accept or adopt an innovation
dialect
a version of a language that reflects changes in speech patterns due to class, region, or cultural changes
religion
the belief in a supernatural power or powers that are regarded as the creators and maintaineres of the universe, as well as the system of beliefs itself
birthrate
the number of live births per total poulation, often expressed per thousand population
fertility rate
the average number of children a woman of childbearing years would have in her lifetime, if she had children at the current rate for her country
mortality rate
the number of deaths per thousand
infant mortality rate
the number of deaths among infants under age one as measured per thousand live births
rate of natural increase
also called poulation growth rate - the rate at which population is growing, found by subtracting the mortality rate from the birthrate
population pyramid
a graphic device that shows gender and age distribution of a population
push factor
a factor that causes people to leave their homelands and migrate to another region
pull factor
a factor that draws or attracts people to another location
population density
the average number of people who live in a measurable area, reached by dividing the number of inhabitatnts in an area by the amount of land they occupy
carrying capacity
the number of organisms a piece of land can support without negative effects
state
a political term describing an independent unit that occupies a specific territory and has full control of its internal and external affairs
nation
a group of people with a common culture living in a territory and having a strong sense of unity
nation-state
the name of a territory when a nation and a state occupy the same territory
democracy
a type of government in which citizens hold political power either directly or through elected representatives
monarchy
a type of government in which a ruling family headed by a king or queen holds political power and may or may not share the power with citizen bodies
dictatorship
a type of government in which an individual or a group holds complete political power
communism
a system in which the government holds nearly all political power and the means of production
landlocked
having no outlet to the sea
urban geography
the study of how people use space in cities
city
an area that is the center of business and culture and has a large population
suburb
a political unit or community touching the borders of the central city or touching other suburbs that touch the city
metropolitan area
a functional area including a city and its surrounding suburbs and exurbs, linked economically
urbanization
the dramatic rise in the number of cities and the changes in lifestyle that result
CBD
the core of a city, which is almost always based on commercial activity
economy
the production and exchange of goods and services among a group of people
economic system
the way people produce and exchange goods
command economy
a type of economic system in which production of goods and services is determined by a central government, which usually owns the means of production; planned economy
market economy
a type of economic system in which production of goods and services is determined by the demand from consumers; demand economy, or capitalism
natural resources
materials on or in the earth, such as a tre, fish, or coal, that has economic value
infrastructure
the basic support systems needed to keep an economy going, including power, communications, transportation, water, sanitation, and education systems
per capita income
the average amount of money earned by each person in a political unit
GNP
the total value of all goods and services produced by a country in a period of time
GDP
the value of only goods and services produced within a country in a period of time
fault
a fracture in the earth's crust