Simple Sentence
1 independent clause, 0 dependent clauses
Compound Sentence
2+ independent clauses, 0 dependent clauses
Complex Sentence
1 independent clause, 1 or more dependent clauses
Compound-Complex Sentence
2+ Independent clauses, 1+ dependent clauses
Fragment
No independent clauses, 1+ dependent clauses
Clause
Noun + verb
Independent clause
no subordinating conjunction (since, if, when, until, because, as, while)
dependent clause
has subordinating conjunction
subordinating conjunction
SWABI- since, when, although, because, if
semicolons ( ; )
Link independent clauses. If you can replace it with a period it is being used properly
colons ( : )
Announce presence of something important. Use before list or explanation that is preceded by an independent clause.
dash ( -- )
Two hyphens. Dashes link phrases/clauses and add emphasis to information connected to them
hyphens ( - )
Link words to create new terms (compound numbers/fractions, compound adjectives)
ellipsis ( ... )
Three periods that indicate that information has been left out. Use four if at the end of a sentence. Use to create suspense, or bridge from topic to topic.
Parenthesis ( )
Used to include information less important than outside of parentheses. Can also give more detail to sentence. Can be used for numbered/lettered lists and in-text citations.
One-author Novel Citation (MLA)
Lastname, Firstname. Title. City: Publisher, year. Print.
Punctuation order: , . . : , . .
LiFT and CoPY
Block quotes
Tab information if it is longer than four lines. Introduce quote in text. Remove quotation marks. Don't put period after parenthetical reference.
Quoting a Quote
Begin and end with double quotes, all quotes inside single quotes.
Thesis Statements
Thesis statements are never facts, aways arguable. Always key point of essay, persuasive and weighty sentence. Not more than one sentence. Always resides at the end of an introductory paragraph.
MLA Heading
Name, instructor's name, class name, due date. Always double spaced, consecutive lines.
Titles
Should have attention grabber before colon, explanation after colon. Do not state what will be learned or what type of essay is being written
Gerunds
Words that end with "-ing". Verbs that act like nouns, may be part of phrases. If ing word can be replaced by "it", then the ing word is a gerund.
Infinitives
To + Verb. To study, to shop, to sing. Do not confuse with prepositional phrases.
Active voice
avoid expletives (there are, this is,) do not place mover in middle or end of sentence, avoid wimpy verbs.
Active vs. Passive Voice
Active: I went to the store.
Passive: The store was visited by me.
Introductory set of Appositives
Appositives rename things, and should be placed near what they rename.
Appositive Example
Earl Manigault, Bob McAdoo, Bob Cousy--all are extemely undervalued, understudied basketball players.
Interrupting Modifiers
if modifier is an aside, use parentheses. If a modifier is addition to information, use commas or dashes. Can be very effective when placed between subject-verb combinations
Participial phrases
Can look like gerunds, but do not function like nouns. Function as adjectives. Do not pass "it" test.
Appositives
rename nouns, can come after colons for extra emphasis. Colon is needed to get final exam question right.
Absolute construction
Noun + participle with no grammatical connection to independent clause.
Inverted subject prepositional phrases
Subject must be at end of sentence. (Ex: Up the hill climbed the mighty Pumbaa.)
Deliberate fragments
Purposefully creating a fragment to add intrigue and variation to writing.
Introductory Prep Phrase
To do this, you simply add a prepositional phrase to introduce the location, time, etc. of the subject. Almost like adding setting with a few words.
Single Modifier
A word that modifies the meaning of another word, phrase, or clause. When used out of place, it can add variety to a sentence
Antithesis
A sentence that contrasts parallel structure and is used for emphasis.
Chiasmus
rhetorical figure in which words, grammatical constructions, or concepts are repeated in reverse order of the previous form.
Ex: Poetry is the record of the best and happiest moments of the happiest and best minds
Inversion of a sentence
subject and verb appear at end of sentence vs beginning
Ex: Into the abyss fell Scar.
Sexist Language
When it is assumed in writing, etc, that only one gender is participating in something.
Ex: Firemen, Mailman, Police men
Subordinate Noun Clause
dependent clause used as a noun in a sentence
Hypophora
Figure of speech where a writer raises a question and then immediately provides an answer to that question
Parallelism
a balance between two or more similar words, phrases, or clauses. All sentences including gerunds, infinitives, and verbs should have parallelism present
predicate nouns as subordinate noun clauses
predicate noun is a single noun or a noun phrase that renames the subject of a sentence and follows a form of the verb "to be" or another linking verb. Subordinate clause is a clause that has a SWABI's connected to it.
Titles of Short Works
Short works such as essays, poems, songs, etc, should be placed within quotation marks
Semicolons in a long list
Used to separate objects, or when listing cities.
Ex: This summer I will visit Minneapolis, Minnesota; New York, New York; and Los Angeles, California.
Absolute phrases
(Nouns + participles)
Participles are verbs that act as adjectives. Absolute phrases have an adjective directly after possessive pronoun and noun.
Ex:
Subordinate Noun Clause as Direct object
clause with subordinating conjunction (swabi) that makes the group of words subordinate to independent clauses. in order to be a direct object, the entire clause must receive cation of the main verb of the main clause.
Paired construction
Parallelism used to compare or contrast.
Misuse of quotation marks
Make sure commas are properly used inside quotation marks.
powerful words
avoid using overused words such as: Had, said, went. Use more original alternatives
Titles of long works
Titles of long novels or works are underlined or italicized in academic realms.
Expletives
A grouping of words that perform grammatical roles but contribute nothing to meaning. Cannot stand alone, used to add antecedent or future resting sentence.
Comma Splices
Also known as a run on, occur when two independent clauses are connected with only a comma.
Comma Splice Example
Fanning the slice of pizza with a napkin, Jolene waited for it to cool, she had already burned the roof of her mouth with the fried cheese stick.
Prep Phrases between subject and verb
Look for key prep phrase starters in between the subject and verb, such as aboard, about, above, across, after, etc.
commas after introductory elements
Commas are needed after most introductory elements
Ex: Fascinated by the lecture, she quickly approached the professor afterward.
Homonyms
Words that sound the same but are spelled different/have different meaning
ex: Sent, scent, cent
Missing comma with a nonrestrictive element tip
The nonessential elements need to be set off by commas.
Fused sentence
Same as a comma splice
Missing comma
in a long sentence, a comma is usually needed before the coordinating conjunction
Connotation
can be used to effectively manipulate the reader's perception on a topic. A word conveys negative connotation if it suggest a more negative meaning than other synonyms that could be used. Ex. nerdy conveys a more negative connotation than studious.
pronouns and antecedents
pronouns should clearly refer to their antecedents
ex: after putting the desk in the cabinet, mabel sold it.
Works Cited
page of sources organized alphabetically by last name.
Active voice definition
A sentence in which the subject is performing the verb directly.
Ex: The hunter shot Bambi vs. Bambi was shot by the hunter
Improper shift in verb tense
The man sleeps on the bed as the dog barked for attention. (Barked= past tense sleeps=present)
Faulty sentence structure
A sentence that is not worded or formed properly
Faulty Structure ex
Wrong: I start my day with breakfast, exercising, and checking out the latest blogs.
Right: I start my day by eating breakfast, exercising, and checking out the latest blogs.
Improper Sentence fragment
Wrong: The bus was late. So we had to walk.
Right: The bus was late, so we had to walk.
Disagreeable pompous language
vocab that is too elaborate, punctuation that is too nuanced/varied, sentence length is too extensive.
Cliche
similar to profanity. Highly overused. Predictable ending. Common sayings. "She spilled the beans.
Unnecessary or missing apostrophe
an apostrophe that doesn't fit with a word in a sentence or is needed but not present.
Euphemisms
softer terms that replace unpleasant diction. Used to make sentences seem less blunt. "Passed away" Opposed to "died
Subject-Verb agreement
Ex.The man runs through the park to catch his train. (Man and runs are both singular)
Superlatives
Used to describe an object which is at the upper or lower limit of a quality. "Hot, Hotter, Hottest
Elliptical construction
Occurs when the writer omits one or more words in a compound structure.
Elliptical construction example
I went swimming, and John went [swimming], too.
The word swimming is not needed.
Dangling modifier
a word or phrase that modifies another word not clearly stated in the sentence.
ex. Upon visiting the doctor, the door opened for her. (according to the sentence door is what is visiting the doctor.
Direct object before the main clause
A noun or pronoun in a sentence that receives the action of a transitive verb.
Procatalepsis
Predicting what your opponent will say to counteract that statement. Good to use in argumentative writing.
Anadiplosis
Repeating the last word or phrase of a sentence or clause at the beginning of the next sentence or clause.
Ex: "Hunger leads to starvation. Starvation leads to poverty. Poverty leads to suffering.
Alliterative sentence
Almost all of the words start with the same letter.
Ex: Mickey Mouse married Minnie Mouse Monday morning in Maryland.
Antimetabole
repetition of words that inverts sentence
Ex: If you fail to plan, you plan to fail.
Empty Words
Empty words quickly become annoying and weak.
Functional Classification
declarative sentence tells the reader something. Interrogative sentence asks questions. Imperative gives commands. Exclamatory always ends in an !
Dropped Quote Error
Failure to introduce a source prior to using a quote in writing.
Rhetorical Classification (cumulative/periodic)
in a cumulative sentence the details come after the subject. In a periodic sentence the detail come before the subject its talking about.
MLA quote integration
inclose the quote with quotations, and after the closing quotation, add a parenthetical adding the author or the first word of the article as well as the page number if given.