Ethics and Society

Ethics

is the philosophical study of morality.

Morality refers to

beliefs concerning right and wrong, good and bad

Two different approaches to ethics:

1. Descriptive (scientific, empirical) Ethics: anthropology, history, sociology, etc. 2. Philosophical (prescriptive) Ethics

Normative ethics�

the study of the principles, rules, or theories that guide our actions and judgments

Metaethics

the study of the meaning and logical structure of moral beliefs

Applied ethics

application of moral norms to specific moral issues or cases

intrinsic vs. instrumental/extrinsic

intrinsic = valuable in itself for its own sake
extrinsic = (instrumentally) valuable as a means to something else

The Preeminence of Reason (The importance of reason)

Our ability to use reason to evaluate moral issues. (moral judgments must be supported by good reasons)

The Universal Perspective

logic requires that moral norms and judgments must follow the principle of universalizability

the principle of universalizability

The idea that a moral statement (a principle, rule, or judgment) that applies in one situation must apply in all other situations that are relevantly similar.

The Principle of Impartiality

(from the moral point of view) all persons are considered equal and should be treated accordingly

The Dominance of Moral Norms

more dominate than legal norms, aesthetic norms, and all others

what is the relationship between religion and ethics (the philosophical study of morality)?

Believers need moral reasoning
When conflicts arise, ethics steps in
Moral philosophy enables productive discourse

What is the relationship between religion and morality (beliefs about right and wrong)?

Divine command theory�right actions are those willed by God

Moral relativism

is the view that there are no universal standards of morality that apply to everyone. (depends upon the individual)

moral objectivism

(the opposite of moral relativism) there are universal standards of morality valid for everyone

Subjective Relativism

Each individual is the source of his or her own moral code
Morality is relative to the individual

Cultural Relativism

Morality is dependent on one's culture or society (no objective moral principles) diff cultures have diff moral codes

Emotivism

there is no such thing as objective goodness or badness, only subjective attitudes

An argument consists of

premise(s), inference, and conclusion

Premises are

statements or propositions that are given as evidence or reasons for supporting the conclusion

conclusion indicators are

therefore, so, hence, thus, it follows that

premise indicators are

for and because

two basic types of arguments:

deductive and inductive

in a deductive argument, the conclusion is

certainly true

in a inductive argument, the conclusion is

probably true

A good, or sound, deductive argument has two requirements:

true premise(s) and a valid (logically correct) form

Moral statements are

prescriptive affirming that an action is right or wrong or that a person is good or bad.

Non-moral statements are

factual, descriptive, asserted to be true or false

a moral premise is a form of a

universal generalization

testing the truth of non-moral premises:

1. Use reliable sources.
2. Beware when evidence conflicts. No inconsistencies with another claim you think is true
3. Let reason rule.

Begging the Question (Circular Argument)

Trying to use a statement as both a premise in an argument and the conclusion of that argument

Equivocation

Assigning two different meanings to the same term in an argument

Appeal to Authority

Citing as an expert someone who is either not an expert in the relevant field or is a nonexpert

Slippery Slope

Arguing that a particular action will inevitably lead to other actions that are disastrous

Faulty Analogy

Arguing that because two things are alike in one way, they must be alike in some additional way

Appeal to Ignorance

Arguing that we can believe a claim because of a lack of evidence for its contrary

Straw Man

Misrepresenting someone's claim or argument so it can be more easily refuted

Appeal to the Person (ad hominem)

Arguing that a claim should be rejected solely because of the characteristics of the person who makes it

Hasty generalization

Drawing a conclusion about an entire group of people or things based on an undersized or unrepresentative sample of the group

Types of Moral Theory

Value�concerned with the goodness of persons
Obligation�concerned with the rightness or wrongness of actions

Consequentialist or teleological theories:

judge actions in terms of consequences

Nonconsequentialist (or Deontological)

depends on the nature of the action

Consequentialist Theories:

Utilitarianism: acts that maximize the good for all concerned
Ethical egoism: morally right action is the one that promotes one's self-interes

Nonconsequentialist Theories: 3 definitions

1. Kant's Theory: ultimate principle is the categorical imperative (two forms)
2. Natural Law Theory (St. Thomas Aquinas): morally right action is the one that follows the dictates of nature
3. Divine Command Theory: the morally right action is the one th

Criterion 1: moral criterion of adequacy

Consistency with considered judgments

Criterion 2:moral criterion of adequacy

Consistency with our moral experiences

Criterion 3: moral criterion of adequacy

Usefulness in moral problem solving

Ethical egoism is the theory that

the right action is the one that advances one's own best interests

Psychological Egoism (PE)

descriptive of what people are like, i.e., selfish or self-centered�theory about human motivation

Ethical Egoism (EE) two versions

is a normative, or prescriptive, theory of how people ought to behave

How formulate PE: People are always motivated by the desire to attain their own best interest, promote their welfare
2 ways

1. Not necessarily selfishness: could include helping others and cultivating friends if you think it is in your best interest.
2. Not necessarily self-indulgence or recklessness: immediate vs. long-term self-interest (prudence)

Definitions of self-interest:

(Greek philosopher Epicurus, 341-270 B.C.E.), self-actualization, security and material success, satisfaction of desires, acquisition of power, happiness

Individual ethical egoism:

I ought to look out for my own interests; concern about others to the extent it promotes my interests

Universal ethical egoism:

Everyone ought to look out for and seek his/her own interests

Act-egoism applies

the doctrine to individual acts every time you need to make a decision

Rule-egoism applies to

relevant rules: right action is one that falls under a moral rule that if followed would maximize your self-interest