Ethics
is the philosophical study of morality.
Morality refers to
beliefs concerning right and wrong, good and bad
Two different approaches to ethics:
1. Descriptive (scientific, empirical) Ethics: anthropology, history, sociology, etc. 2. Philosophical (prescriptive) Ethics
Normative ethics�
the study of the principles, rules, or theories that guide our actions and judgments
Metaethics
the study of the meaning and logical structure of moral beliefs
Applied ethics
application of moral norms to specific moral issues or cases
intrinsic vs. instrumental/extrinsic
intrinsic = valuable in itself for its own sake
extrinsic = (instrumentally) valuable as a means to something else
The Preeminence of Reason (The importance of reason)
Our ability to use reason to evaluate moral issues. (moral judgments must be supported by good reasons)
The Universal Perspective
logic requires that moral norms and judgments must follow the principle of universalizability
the principle of universalizability
The idea that a moral statement (a principle, rule, or judgment) that applies in one situation must apply in all other situations that are relevantly similar.
The Principle of Impartiality
(from the moral point of view) all persons are considered equal and should be treated accordingly
The Dominance of Moral Norms
more dominate than legal norms, aesthetic norms, and all others
what is the relationship between religion and ethics (the philosophical study of morality)?
Believers need moral reasoning
When conflicts arise, ethics steps in
Moral philosophy enables productive discourse
What is the relationship between religion and morality (beliefs about right and wrong)?
Divine command theory�right actions are those willed by God
Moral relativism
is the view that there are no universal standards of morality that apply to everyone. (depends upon the individual)
moral objectivism
(the opposite of moral relativism) there are universal standards of morality valid for everyone
Subjective Relativism
Each individual is the source of his or her own moral code
Morality is relative to the individual
Cultural Relativism
Morality is dependent on one's culture or society (no objective moral principles) diff cultures have diff moral codes
Emotivism
there is no such thing as objective goodness or badness, only subjective attitudes
An argument consists of
premise(s), inference, and conclusion
Premises are
statements or propositions that are given as evidence or reasons for supporting the conclusion
conclusion indicators are
therefore, so, hence, thus, it follows that
premise indicators are
for and because
two basic types of arguments:
deductive and inductive
in a deductive argument, the conclusion is
certainly true
in a inductive argument, the conclusion is
probably true
A good, or sound, deductive argument has two requirements:
true premise(s) and a valid (logically correct) form
Moral statements are
prescriptive affirming that an action is right or wrong or that a person is good or bad.
Non-moral statements are
factual, descriptive, asserted to be true or false
a moral premise is a form of a
universal generalization
testing the truth of non-moral premises:
1. Use reliable sources.
2. Beware when evidence conflicts. No inconsistencies with another claim you think is true
3. Let reason rule.
Begging the Question (Circular Argument)
Trying to use a statement as both a premise in an argument and the conclusion of that argument
Equivocation
Assigning two different meanings to the same term in an argument
Appeal to Authority
Citing as an expert someone who is either not an expert in the relevant field or is a nonexpert
Slippery Slope
Arguing that a particular action will inevitably lead to other actions that are disastrous
Faulty Analogy
Arguing that because two things are alike in one way, they must be alike in some additional way
Appeal to Ignorance
Arguing that we can believe a claim because of a lack of evidence for its contrary
Straw Man
Misrepresenting someone's claim or argument so it can be more easily refuted
Appeal to the Person (ad hominem)
Arguing that a claim should be rejected solely because of the characteristics of the person who makes it
Hasty generalization
Drawing a conclusion about an entire group of people or things based on an undersized or unrepresentative sample of the group
Types of Moral Theory
Value�concerned with the goodness of persons
Obligation�concerned with the rightness or wrongness of actions
Consequentialist or teleological theories:
judge actions in terms of consequences
Nonconsequentialist (or Deontological)
depends on the nature of the action
Consequentialist Theories:
Utilitarianism: acts that maximize the good for all concerned
Ethical egoism: morally right action is the one that promotes one's self-interes
Nonconsequentialist Theories: 3 definitions
1. Kant's Theory: ultimate principle is the categorical imperative (two forms)
2. Natural Law Theory (St. Thomas Aquinas): morally right action is the one that follows the dictates of nature
3. Divine Command Theory: the morally right action is the one th
Criterion 1: moral criterion of adequacy
Consistency with considered judgments
Criterion 2:moral criterion of adequacy
Consistency with our moral experiences
Criterion 3: moral criterion of adequacy
Usefulness in moral problem solving
Ethical egoism is the theory that
the right action is the one that advances one's own best interests
Psychological Egoism (PE)
descriptive of what people are like, i.e., selfish or self-centered�theory about human motivation
Ethical Egoism (EE) two versions
is a normative, or prescriptive, theory of how people ought to behave
How formulate PE: People are always motivated by the desire to attain their own best interest, promote their welfare
2 ways
1. Not necessarily selfishness: could include helping others and cultivating friends if you think it is in your best interest.
2. Not necessarily self-indulgence or recklessness: immediate vs. long-term self-interest (prudence)
Definitions of self-interest:
(Greek philosopher Epicurus, 341-270 B.C.E.), self-actualization, security and material success, satisfaction of desires, acquisition of power, happiness
Individual ethical egoism:
I ought to look out for my own interests; concern about others to the extent it promotes my interests
Universal ethical egoism:
Everyone ought to look out for and seek his/her own interests
Act-egoism applies
the doctrine to individual acts every time you need to make a decision
Rule-egoism applies to
relevant rules: right action is one that falls under a moral rule that if followed would maximize your self-interest