Moral Theory
explanation of what makes an action right or what makes a person or thing good
Moral Code
specific set of rules to follow
Moral code is applied to
actions in a simple straightforward manner, and tells us what is right or wrong
Moral code is rigid
and may not provide guidance or insight when it comes to moral problems it was not designed to address
Because moral theories are by definition general and theoretical
it does not, by itself, give us precisely tailored answers to questions about the rightness or wrongness of specific actions or the goodness or badness of a specific person or thing
Moral theory is
a tool to help us think through the problem. Because it is a general standard concerned with the nature of good/bad, right/wrong, it is flexible and may be more useful than a moral code in addressing new moral dilemmas
Reflective Equilibrium
the goal of the thought process of using a moral theories to resolve moral dilemmas
Two major types of theories
consequentialist and nonconsequentialist
Consequentialist theories say
what makes an action right is the result of the action (amount of good it produces), its consequences
Consequentialist theories include
utilitarianism (both act- and rule-utilitarianism) and ethical egoism
Consequentialist theories define "good" in different ways
pleasure, happiness, well-being knowledge
Utilitarianism
the morally right action is the one that produces the most favorable balance of good over evil, everyone considered
Act-utilitarianism
the morally right action is the one that directly produces the greatest overall good, everyone considered
Rule-utilitarianism
the morally right action is the one that, if followed as a general rule, will produce the greatest overall good, all instances and everyone considered
Ethical Egoism
the morally right action is the one that produces the most favorable balance of good over evil for oneself
Nonconsequentialist moral theories say
that the rightness of an action does not depend entirely on its consequences
Nonconsequentialist theories include
Kant's theory, natural law theory, and divine command theory
Kant's theory
An action is right if it is done in accordance with the categorical imperative: Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law
Categorical imperative says that
an action is morally right if, and only if, you could rationally will the rule implied by the action to be universal�that is, if you could rationally argue that everyone in similar circumstances should act according to that rule
b. Natural law theory
An action is morally right if it follows the dictates of nature
Evaluating Theories
Minimal requirement of Coherence, if two claims within a theory are contradictory, one is false and the theory is refuted, a moral theory that is internally inconsistent is not eligible for further evaluation
moral criteria of adequacy to theories
1. consistency with considered judgments,
2. consistency with our moral experiences, and
3. usefulness in moral problem solving
considered moral judgment is
a reliable and carefully made opinion about an issue - requires careful deliberation, and is free of bias
Our moral experience shows that
a. We sometimes make moral judgments.
b. We often give reasons for particular moral beliefs.
c. We are sometimes mistaken in our moral beliefs.
d. We occasionally have moral disagreements.
Ethical egoism is
the theory that the right action is the one that advances one's own best interests
Ethical egoism promotes
self-interested behavior but not necessarily selfish acts
The most important argument for ethical egoism relies on the theory known as
psychological egoism, the view that the motive for all our actions is self-interest. Psychological egoism, however, seems to ignore the fact that people sometimes do things that are not in their best interests. It also seems to misconstrue the relationshi
Regardless of criticisms lodged against it, utilitarianism
offers important insights about the nature of morality: The consequences of our actions surely do matter in our moral deliberations and in our lives
Hypothetical Imperative of Kant's Ethics
A hypothetical imperative tells us what we should do if we have certain desires and desire the outcome specified. For example, "If you need money, work for it." "If you want orange juice, ask for it".
Categorical Imperative of Kant's Ethics
A categorical imperative tells us that we should do a thing in all situations regardless of our wants and needs. One example is, "Do not steal." Kant says that the moral law consists entirely of categorical imperatives - they are the product of rational i
The Golden Rule
The meat of Kant's theory is the categorical imperative, an action is right if you can will that the maxim of an action become a moral law applying to all persons. Kant says that the moral law consists entirely of categorical imperatives
In Kant's theory, an action is permissible if
its maxim can be universalized (if everyone can consistently act on it) and you would be willing to have that happen.
Perfect duties are
those that must be followed without exception. According to Kant, such duties include the duty not to lie, not to break a promise, and not to commit suicide
Imperfect duties are
those that can have exceptions or that are not always to be followed. These include duties to develop your talents and to help others in need
The second version of the categorical imperative says that
we must always treat people as ends in themselves and never merely as a means to an end
Kant's theory seems to conflict with our
commonsense moral judgments (Criterion 1) and has flaws that limit its usefulness in moral problem solving (Criterion 3)
Kant's theory falters
Criterion 1 mainly because some duties generated by the categorical imperative are absolute. Absolute duties can conflict, and Kant provides no way to resolve the inconsistencies, a failure of Criterion 3. Furthermore, we seem to have no genuine absolute
Learning from Kant's Theory
Despite its possible shortcomings, Kant's theory has been among the most influential of moral theories, mainly because it embodies a good part of what our considered judgments lead us to embrace, namely: Universality; Impartiality; Respect for persons
B. Aquinas, who gave us the most influential form of natural law theory, says that
humans naturally incline toward preservation of human life, procreation, the search for truth, community, and benign and reasonable behavior
As expressed by Thomas Aquinas, at the heart of natural law theory is the
notion that right actions are those that accord with the moral principles that we can "read" clearly in the very structure of nature itself
Our duty is to achieve the good
to fully realize the goals toward which our nature is already inclined
Reason, which allows us to discern the natural laws that can be derived from
our nature, is the foundation of morality. So, judging the rightness or wrongness of an action is a matter of consulting reason
doctrine of double effect
The principle applies to situations in which an action produces both good and bad effects. It says that performing a good action may be permissible even if it has bad effects, but performing a bad action for the purpose of achieving good effects is never
Despite the double-effect doctrine, the theory's biggest weakness is still
its absolutism, which seems to mandate actions that conflict with our considered moral judgments. In some cases, for example, the theory might require someone to allow hundreds of innocent people to die just to avoid the direct killing of a single person
2. Natural law theory's usefulness is undermined by
the conflict between its assumptions about the teleological character of nature and the scientific sense of nature as nonteleological