Faction
A term used by the founders of this country to refer to political parties and special interests or interest groups.
Interest Group
A collection of people who share some common interest or attitude and seek to influence government for specific ends. Interest groups usually work within the framework of government and employ tactics such as lobbying to achieve their goals.
Movement
A large body of people interested in a common issue, idea, or concern that is of continuing significance and who are willing to take action. Movements seek to change attitudes or institutions, not just policies.
Open Shop
A company with a labor agreement under which union membership cannon be required as a condition of employment.
Closed Shop
A company with labor agreement under which union membership can be a condition of employment.
Free Rider
An individual who does not join a group representing his or her interests yer receives the benefit of the influence the group achieves.
Federal Registrar
Official document, published every weekday, that lists the new and proposed regulation of executive departments and regulatory agencies.
Amicus Curiae" Brief
Literally, a "friend of the court" brief, filled by and individual or organization to present arguments in addition to those presented by the immediate parties to a case.
Lobbying
Engaging in activities aimed at influencing public officials, especially legislatures, and the policies they enact.
Lobbyist
A person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or corporations to try to influence policy decisions and positions in the executive and legislative branches.
Revolving Door
Employment cycle in which individuals who work for governmental agencies regulating interests eventually end up working for interest groups or businesses with the same policy concern.
Iron Triangle
A mutually dependent relationship among interest groups, congressional committees and subcommittees, and government agencies that share a common policy concern.
Political Action Committee (PAC)
The political arm of an interest group that in legally entitled to raise funds on a voluntary basis from member, stockholders or employees in order to contribute funds to favored candidates or political parties.
Bundling
A tactic of political action committees whereby they collect contributions from like-minded individuals (each limited to $2000) and present them to a candidate or political party as a "bundle," thus increasing their influence.
Independent Expenditures
The Supreme Court has ruled that individuals, groups, and parties can spend unlimited amounts in campaigns for or against candidates as long as they operate independently from the candidates. When an individual, group, or party does so, they are making an
Hard Money
Political contributions given to a party, candidate, or interest group that are limited in amount and fully disclosed. Raising such limited funds is harder than raising unlimited funds, hence the term "hard money.
Soft Money
Money raised in unlimited amounts by political parties for party-building purposes. Now largely illegal except for limited contributions to state and local parties for voter registration and get-out-the-vote efforts.
Issue Advocacy
Unlimited and undisclosed spending by and individual or group on communications that do not use words like "vote for" or "vote against," although much of this activity is actually about electing or defeating candidates.
527 Organization
A political group organized under section 527 of the IRS Code that may accept and spend unlimited amounts of money on election activities so long as they are not spent on broadcast ads run in the last 30 days before a primary or 60 days before a general e
Quid Pro Quo
Something given with the expectation of receiving something in return.
Democracy
Government by the people. either directly or indirectly, with free and frequent elections.
Direct Democracy
Government in which citizens vote on laws and select officials more directly.
Representative Democracy
Government that derives its powers indirectly from the people, who elect those who will govern; also called a republic.
Constitutional Democracy
A government that enforces recognized limits on those who govern and allows the voice of the people to be heard through free, fair, and relatively frequent elections.
Constitutionalism
The set of arrangements, including checks and balances, federalism, separation of powers, rule of law, due process, and a bill of rights, that requires leaders to listen, think, bargain, and explain before they act or make law. We then hold them political
Statism
The idea that the rights of the nation are supreme over the rights of the individuals residing in that nation.
Popular Consent
The idea that a just government must derive its powers from the consent of the people it governs.
Majority Rule
Governance according to the expressed preferences of the majority.
Majority
The candidate or party that wins more than half the votes cast in an election.
Plurality
Candidate or party with the most votes cast in an election, not necessarily more than half.
Ideology
A consistent pattern of beliefs about political values and the role of government.
Theocracy
Government by religious leaders, who claim divine guidance.
Articles of Confederation
The first governing document of the confederated states, drafted in 1777, ratified in 1781, and replaced by the present Constitution in 1789.
Annapolis Convention
A convention held in September 1786 to consider problems of trade and navigation, attended by five states and important because it issued the call to Congress and the states for what became the Constitutional Convention.
Constitutional Convention
The convention in Philadelphia, May 25 to September 17, 1787, that framed the Constitution of the United States.
Shays' Rebellion
Rebellion by farmers in western Massachusetts in 1786-1787, protesting mortgage foreclosures; led by Daniel Shays and important because it highlighted the need for a strong national government just as the call for the Constitutional Convention went out.
Virginia Plan
Initial proposal at the Constitutional Conventional made by the Virginia delegation for a strong central government with a bicameral legislature, the lower house to be elected by the votes and the upper chosen by the lower.
New Jersey Plan
Proposal at the Constitutional Convention made by William Paterson of New Jersey for a central government with a single-house legislature in which each state would be represented equally.
Connecticut Compromise
Compromise agreement by states at the Constitutaonal Convention for a bicameral legislature with a lower house in which representation would be based on population and an upper house in which each state would have two senators.
Three-fifths Compromise
Compromise agreement between northern and southern states at the Constitutional Convention that three-fifths of the slave population would be counted for determining direct taxation and representation in the House of Representatives.
Federalists
Supporters of ratification of the Constitutionality whose position promoting a strong central government was later voiced in the Federalist party.
Antifederalists
Opponents of ratification of the Constitution and of a strong central government generally.
The Federalist
Series of essays promoting ratification of the Constitution, published anonymously by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison in 1787 and 1788.
Naturalism
A legal action conferring citizenship on an alien.
Dual Citizenship
Citizenship in more than one nation.
Right of Expatriation
The right to renounce one's citizenship.
Property Rights
The rights of an individual to own, use, rent, invest in, buy, and sell property.
Contract Clause
Clause of the Constitution (Article I, Section 10) originally intended to prohibit state governments from modifying contracts made between individuals; for a while interpreted as prohibiting state governments from taking actions that that adversely affect
Police Powers
Inherent powers of state governments to pass laws to protect the public heath, safety, and welfare; the national government has no directly granted police powers but accomplishes the same goals through other delegated powers.
Eminent Domain
Power of a government to take private property for public use; the U.S. Constitution gives national and state governments this power and requires them to provide just compensation for property so taken.
Regulatory Taking
Government regulation of property so extensive that government is deemed to have taken the property by the power of eminent domain, for which it must compensate the property owners.
Due Process
Established rules and regulations that restrain people in government who exercise power.
Procedural Due Process
Constitutional requirement that governments proceed by proper methods; places limits on how governmental power my be exercised.
Substantive Due Process
Constitutional requirement that governments act reasonable and that the substance of the laws themselves be fair and reasonable; places limits on what a government may do.
Search Warrant
A writ issued by a magistrate that authorizes the police to search a particular place or person, specifying the place to be searched and the objects to be seized.
Racial Profiling
Police targeting of racial minorities as potential suspects of criminal activities.
Exclusionary Rule
Requirement that evidence unconstitutionally or illegally obtained be excluded from a criminal trial.
Immunity
Exemption form prosecution for a particular crime in return for testimony pertaining to the case.
Grand Jury
A jury of 12 to 23 persons who, in private, hear evidence presented by the government to determine whether persons shall be required to stand trial. If the jury believes there is sufficient evidence that a crime was committed, it issues an indictment.
Indictment
A formal written statement from a grand jury charging an individual with an offense; also called a "true bill.
Plea Bargain
Agreement between a prosecutor and a defendant that the defendant will plead guilty to a lesser offense to avoid having to stand trial for a more serious offense.
Petit Jury
A jury of 6 to 12 persons that determines guilt or innocence in a civil or criminal action.
Double Jeopardy
Trial or punishment for the same crime by the same government; forbidden by the Constitution.
Community Policing
Assigning police to neighborhoods where they walk the beat and work with churches and other community groups to reduce crime and improve relations with minorities.
Realigning Election
An election during periods of expanded suffrage and change in the economy and society that proves to be a turning point, redefining the agenda of politics and the alignment of voters within parties.
Laissez-faire Economics
Theory that opposes government interference in economic affairs beyond what is necessary to protect life and property.
Keynesian Economics
Theory based on the principles of John Maynard Keynes, stating that government spending should increase during business slumps and be curbed during booms.
Divided Government
Governance divided between the parties, as when one holds the presidency and the other controls one or both houses of Congress.
National Party Convention
A national meeting of delegates elected in primaries, caucuses, or state conventions who assemble once every four years to nominate candidates for president and vice president, ratify the party platform, elect officers, and adopt rules.
527 Organization
Interest groups organized under Section 527 of the internal Revenue Service code may advertise for or against candidates. If their source of funding is corporations or unions, they have some restrictions on broadcast advertising. 527 organizations were im
Reapportionment
The assigning by Congress of congressional seats after each census. State legislatures reapportion state legislative districts.
Redistricting
The redrawing of congressional and other legislative district lines following the census, to accommodate population shifts and keep districts as equal as possible in population.
Gerrymandering
The drawing of legislative district boundaries to benefit a party, group, or incumbent.
Safe Seat
An elected office that is predictable won by one party of the other, so the success of that party's candidate is almost taken for granted.
Incumbents
The current holders of elected office.
Bicameralism
The principle of a two-house legislature.
Enumerated Powers
The powers explicitly given to Congress in the Constitution.
Speaker
The presiding officer in the House of Representatives, formally elected by the House but actually selected by the majority party.
Majority Leader
The legislative leader selected by the majority party who helps plan party strategy, confers with other party leaders, and tries to keep members of the party in line.
Minority Leader
The legislative leader selected by the minority party as spokesperson for the opposition.
Whip
Party leader who is the liaison between the leadership and the rank-and-file in the legislature.
Party Caucus
A meeting of the members of a party in a legislative chamber to select party leaders and to develop party policy. Called a "conference" by the Republicans.
Closed Rule
A procedural rule in the House of Representatives that prohibits any amendments to bills or provides that only members of the committee reporting the bill may offer amendments.
Open Rule
A procedural rule in the House of Representatives that permits floor amendments within the overall time allocated to the bill.
President Pro Tempore
Officer of the Senate selected by the majority party to act as chair in the absence of the vice president.
Hold
A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator temporarily blocks the consideration of a bill or nomination,
Filibuster
A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator refuses to relinquish the floor and thereby delays proceedings and prevents a vote on a controversial issue.
Cloture
A procedure for terminating debate, especially filibusters, in the Senate.
Senatorial Courtesy
Presidential custom of submitting the names of prospective appointees for approval to senators from the states in which the appointees are to work.
Devolution Revolution
The effort to slow the growth of the federal government by returning many functions to the states.
Federalism
Constitutional arrangement whereby power is distributed between a central government and sub-divisional governments, called states in the United States. The national and the sub-divisional governments both exercise direct authority over individuals.
Unitary System
Constitutional arrangement in which power is concentrated in a central government.
Confederation
Constitutional arrangement in which sovereign nations or states, by compact, create a central government but carefully limit its power and do not give it direct authority over individuals.
Express Powers
Powers specifically granted to one of the branches of the national government by the Constitution.
Implied Powers
Powers inferred form the express powers that allow Congress to carry out its functions.
Necessary and Proper Clause
Clause of the Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 3) setting forth the implied powers of Congress. It states that Congress, in addition to its express powers, has the right to make all laws necessary and proper for carrying out all powers vested by
Inherent Powers
The powers of the national government in the field of foreign affairs that the Supreme Court has declared do not depend on constitutional grants but rather grow out of the very existence of the national government.
Commerce Clause
The clause in the Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 1) that gives Congress the power to regulate all business activities that cross state lines or affect more than one state or other nations.
Federal Mandate
A requirement imposed by the federal government as a condition for the receipt of federal funds.
Concurrent Powers
Powers that the Constitution gives to both the national and state governments, such as the power to levy taxes.
Full Faith and Credit Clause
Clause in the Constitution (Article IV, Section 1) requiring each state to recognize the civil judgments rendered by the courts of the other states and to accept their public records and acts as valid.
Extradition
Legal process whereby an alleged criminal offender is surrendered by the officials of one state in which the crime in alleged to have been committed.
Interstate Compact
An agreement among two or more states. The Constitution requires that most such agreements be approved by Congress.
Weapons of Mass Destruction
Biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons that can inflict massive casualties in a single event.
Bush Doctrine
A policy adopted by the Bush administration in 2001 that asserts America's right to attack any nation that might be used against U.S. interests at home or abroad.
Preemption
Associated with the Bush Doctrine, a belief that a nation is justified in attacking another nation to prevent possible attacks on itself.
Permanent Normal Trade Relations (PNTR) status
Trade status granted as part of an international trade policy that gives a nation the same favorable trade concessions and tariffs that the best trading partners receive.
Bipartisanship
A policy that emphasizes a united front and cooperation between the major political parties, especially on sensitive foreign policy issues.
Economic Sanctions
Denial of export, import, or financial relations with a target country in an effort to change that nation's policies.
Bureaucracy
A form of organization that operates through impersonal, uniform rules and procedures.
Bureaucrat
A career government employee.
Department
Usually the largest organization in government; also the highest rank in federal hierarchy.
Independent Agency
A government entity that is independent of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
Independent Regulatory Commission
A government agency or commission with regulatory power whose independence is protected by Congress.
Government Corporation
A government agency that operates like a business corporation, created to secure greater freedom of action and flexibility for a particular program.
Senior Executive Service
Established by Congress in 1978 as a flexible, mobile corps of senior career executives who work closely with presidential appointees to manage government.
Spoils System
A system of public employment based on rewarding party loyalists and friends.
Merit System
A system of public employment in which selection and promotion depend of demonstrated performance rather than political patronage.
Office of Personnel Management (OPM)
Agency that administer civil service laws, rules, and regulations.
Hatch Act
Federal statute barring federal employees from active participation in certain kinds of politics and protecting them from being fired on partisan grounds.
Implementation
The process of putting a law into practice through bureaucratic rules or spending.
Administrative Discretion
Authority given by Congress to the federal bureaucracy to use reasonable judgment in implementing the laws.
Regulations
The formal instructions that government issues for implementing laws.
Rule-making Process
The formal process for making regulations.
Uncontrollable Spending
The portion of the federal budget that is spent on programs, such as Social Security, that the president and Congress are unwilling to cut.
Entitlement Program
Programs such as unemployment insurance, disaster relief, or disability payments that provides benefits to all eligible citizens.
Indexing
Providing automatic increases to compensate for inflation.
Oversight
Legislative or executive review of a particular government program or organization. Can be in response to a crisis of some kind or part of routine review.
Central Clearance
Review of all executive branch testimony, reports, and draft legislation by the Office of Management and Budget to ensure that each communication to Congress is in accordance with the president's program.
Judicial Review
The power of a court to refuse to enforce a law or government regulation that in the opinion of the judges conflicts with the U.S. Constitution or, in a state court, the state constitution.
Adversary System
A judicial system in which the court of law is a neutral arena where two parties argue their differences.
Justiciable Dispute
A dispute growing out of an actual case or controversy and that is capable of settlement by legal methods.
Class Action Suit
Lawsuits brought out of an actual case or controversy and that is capable of settlement by legal methods.
Defendant
In a criminal action, the person or party accused of an offense.
Plea Bargain
Agreement between a prosecutor and a defendant that the defendant will plead guilty to a lesser offense to avoid having to stand trial for a more serious offense.
Public Defender System
Arrangement whereby public officials are hired to provide legal assistance to people accuses of crimes who are unable to hire their own attorneys.
Political Question
A dispute that requires knowledge of a nonlegal character of the use of techniques not suitable for a court or explicitly assigned by the Constitution to Congress or the president; judges refuse to answer constitutional questions that they declare are pol
Writ of Habeas Corpus
A court order requiring explanation to a judge why a prisoner is being held in custody.
Original Jurisdiction
The authority of a court to hear a case "in the first instance.
Appellate Jurisdiction
The authority of a court to review decision made by lower courts.
Magistrate Judge
An official who performs a variety of limited judicial duties.
Court of Appeals
A court with appellate jurisdiction that hears appeals from the decisions of lower courts.
Judicial Self-Restraint
Philosophy proposing that judges should interpret the Constitution to reflect what the framers intended and what its words literally say.
Judicial Activism
Philosophy proposing that judges should interpret the Constitution to reflect current conditions and values.
Stare Decisis
The rule of precedent, whereby a rule or law contained in a judicial decision is commonly viewed as binding on judges whenever the same question is presented.
Writ of Certiorari
A formal writ used to bring a case before the Supreme Court.
Amicus Curiae Brief
Literally, a "friend of the court" brief, filed by an individual or organization to present arguments in addition to those presented by the immediate parties to a case.
Opinion of the Court
An explanation of a decision of the Supreme Court or any other appellate court.
Dissenting Opinion
An opinion disagreeing with the majority in a Supreme Court ruling.
Concurring Opinion
An opinion that agrees with the majority in a Supreme Court ruling but differs on the reasoning.
Parliamentary System
A system of government in which the legislature selects the prime minister or president.
Presidential Ticket
The joint listing of the presidential and vice presidential candidates on the same ballot as required by the 12th Amendment.
Executive Agreement
A formal but often secret agreement between the U.S. president and the leaders of other nations that does not require Senate approval.
Veto
A formal decision to reject a bill passed by Congress.
Pocket Veto
A formal decision to reject a bill passed by Congress after it adjourns - if Congress adjourns during the 10 days that the president is allowed in order the sign or veto a law, the president can reject the law by taking no action at all and the bill is no
Take Care Clause
The constitutional requirement (Article II, Section 3) that presidents take care that the laws are faithfully executed, even if they disagree with the purpose of those laws.
Inherent Powers
Powers that grow out of the very existence of government.
State of the Union Address
The president's annual statement to Congress and the nation.
Impeachment
Formal accusation against the president or other public official, the first step in removal from office.
Executive Privilege
The right to keep executive communications confidential, especially if they relate to national security.
Executive Orders
A formal order issued by the president to direct action by the federal bureaucracy.
Impoundment
A decision by the president not to spend money appropriated by Congress, now prohibited under federal law.
Line Item Veto
Presidential power to strike, or remove, specific items from a spending bill without vetoing the entire package, declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
Chief of Staff
The head of the White House staff.
Executive Office of the President
The cluster of presidential staff agencies that help the president carry out his responsibilities. Currently the office includes the Office of Management and Budget, the Council of Economic Advisers, and several other units.
Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
Presidential staff agency that serves as a clearinghouse for budgetary requests and management improvements for government agencies.
Cabinet
Advisory council for the president, consisting of the heads of the executive departments, the vice president, and a few other official selected by the president.
Rally Point
A rise in public approval of the president that follows a crisis as Americans "rally 'round the flag" and the chief executive.
Mandate
A president's claim of broad public support.
Standing Committee
A permanent committee established in a legislature, usually focusing on a policy area.
Special or Select Committee
A congressional committee created for a specific purpose, sometimes to conduct an investigation.
Joint Committee
A committee composed of members of both the House of Representatives and the Senate; such committees oversee the Library of Congress and conduct investigation.
Seniority Rule
A legislative practice that assigns the chair of a committee or subcommittee to the member of the majority party with the longest continuous service on the committee.
Conference Committee
Committee appointed by the presiding officers of each chamber to adjust differences on a particular bill passed by each in different form.
Delegate
An official who is expected to represent the views of his or her constituents even when personally holding different views; one interpretation of the role of the legislature.
Trustee
An official who is expected to vote independently based of his or her judgment of the circumstances; one interpretation of the role of the legislature.
Attentive Public
Those citizens who follow public affairs carefully.
Logrolling
Mutual aid and vote trading among legislators.
Discharge Petition
Petition that, if signed by a majority of the members of the House of Representatives, will pry a bill from committee and bring it to the floor for consideration.
Rider
A provision attached to a bill - to which it may or may not be related - in order to secure its passage.
Override
An action taken by Congress to reverse a presidential veto, requiring a two-thirds majority in each chamber.
Mass Media
Means of communication that reach the mass public, including newspapers and magazines, radio, television (broadcast, cable, and satellite), films, recordings, books, and electronic communication.
News Media
Media that emphasizes the news.
Issue Advocacy
Promoting a particular position or an issue paid for my interest groups or individuals but not candidates. Much issue advocacy is often electioneering for or against a candidate and, until 2004, had not been subject to any regulation.
Fairness Doctrine
Federal Communications Commission policy that required holders of radio and television licenses to ensure that different viewpoints were presented about controversial issues or persons; largely repealed in 1987.
Political Socialization
The process by which we develop our political attitudes, values, and beliefs.
Selective Exposure
The process by which individuals screen out messages that do not conform to their own biases.
Selective Perception
The process by which individuals perceive what they want to in media messages.