Psychoanalytical Theories
Behavior is primarily unconscious- beyond awareness
Behavior is colored with emotion
Behavior is a surface characteristic with symbolic meaning
Early experiences with parents shape behavior
Sigmund Freud
Neurologist
Developed his psychoanalytic theory working with mental patients
Considered problems are due to early life experiences
Freud's 3 structures of personality
Id
Ego
SuperEgo
Id
Totally unconscious; no connection with reality
Instinctive; reservoir of psychic energy
No morality
Ego
Deals with the demands of reality
Called the "Executive Branch" - uses reasoning to make decisions
No Morality
SuperEgo
Moral branch of personality, considers right and wrong
Our Conscience
Psychosexual Development
-5 Stages
- each stage focuses on a part of the body for experiencing pleasure
- how conflicts between sources of pleasure are resolved determines adult personality
Erogenous Zone
Parts of the body that have especially strong pleasure giving qualities at particular stages of development
5 stages of Psychosexual Development
Oral stage (birth to 18 months)
Anal stage (8 months to 4yrs)
Phallic stage (3 to 7 yrs)
Latent stage (7 to puberty)
Genital stage ( puberty on)
Oral Stage
- pleasure centers around the mouth
(Chewing, sucking, biting, are all sources of pleasure)
Anal Stage
-pleasure centers around the anus
(Elimination functions are source of pleasure)
Phallic Stage
-pleasure focused on the genitals
(Self-manipulation is source of pleasure)
Oedipus Complex appears
Oedipus Complex
Freud's term for the young child's development of an intense desire to replace the same-sex parent and enjoy the affections of the opposite-sex parent
Resolution of the Oedipus Complex
- Children recognize that their same-sex parent might punish them for their incestuous wishes
- to reduce this conflict, the child identifies with the same-sex parent, striving to be like them
Latent Stage
- Child represses all interest in sexuality
- child develops social and intellectual skills
- Energy is channeled into emotionally safe areas
- child forgets the stresses of the phallic stage
Genital Stage
- Time of sexual reawakening
- The source of sexual pleasure comes from outside the family
Fixation
An individual remains locked in an earlier development stage because needs are under/over gratified
Fixation Examples
Oral Fixation: Due to being weened too early, person seeks out oral gratification by smoking, drinking, chewing gum
Anal Fixation: Due to strict potty training, person is excessively neat (Anal Retentive)
Phallic Fixation: Due to being punished for mastur
Contemporary view of Freud's theory
-Unconscious thought remains central theme
- Conscious thought plays larger role
- less emphasis on sexual instincts
- greater emphasis on cultural experiences
Erik Erikson
- recognized Freud's contributions
- believed Freud was wrong on some dimensions of human development
- developed the PsychoSocial Theory of Development
PsychoSocial Theory of Development (1)
- primary motivation for human behavior is social and reflects a desire to affiliate with other people
- 8 stages of development throughout the lifespan
- Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts a person with a crisis that must b
PsychoSocial Theory of Development (2)
- Crises are not catastrophes but rather turning points of increased vulnerability and enhanced potential
- The more an individual resolves the crises successfully, the healthier development will be
Stages of PsychoSocial Development
- Trust vs. Mistrust
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
- Initiative vs. Guilt
- Industry vs. Inferiority
- Identity vs. Identity Confusion
-Intimacy vs. Isolation
- Generativity vs. Stagnation
- Integrity vs. Despair
Trust vs. Mistrust (1st Year)
- A sense of trust requires a feeling of physical comfort and a minimal amount of fear and apprehension about the future
- Trust in infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good/pleasant place
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (2nd Year)
- After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is their own
- infants assert their sense of independence or autonomy
- They realize their will
- If infants are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are
Initiative vs. Guilt
(Preschool Years)
- As preschool children encounter a widening social world, they need purposeful behavior to deal with new challenges
- children are asked to assume responsibility for their bodies, behavior, toys, and pets
- GUILT may arise if the child is irresponsible a
Industry vs. Inferiority
(Elementary School Years)
- As children move into middle and late childhood, they direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills
- The danger during this time is the development of a sense of inferiority- feeling incompetent and unproductive
- Erikson belie
Identity vs. Identity Confusion
(Adolescence)
- People are faced with finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life
- Adolescents are confronted with many new roles and adult statuses
- if the adolescent explores roles in a healthy manner and arrives at a positiv
Intimacy vs. Isolation
(Early Adulthood)
- Individuals face the developmental task of forming intimate friendships with others
- Intimacy is defined as finding oneself yet losing oneself in another
- Intimacy is achieved through the formation of healthy friendships and an intimate relationship w
Generativity vs. Stagnation
(Middle Adulthood)
- A chief concern is to assist the younger generation in developing and leading useful lives (GENERATIVITY)
- The feeling of having done nothing to help the next generation is STAGNATION
Integrity vs. Despair
(Late Adulthood)
- This involves reflecting on the past and either piecing together a positive review or concluding that one's life has not been well spent
- INTEGRITY is achieved through reflecting on a past deemed worthwhile
- If the older adult resolved many of the ear
Cognitive Theories
- Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory
- Vygotsky's SocioCultural Cognitive Theory
- The Information-Processing Approach
Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory
- Children actively construct their understanding of the world
- Children progress through 4 stages of cognitive development
- Two processes underlie development:
ASSIMILATION & ACCOMMODATION
Assimilation
Incorporating new information into their existing knowledge
Accommodation
Adapting one's existing knowledge to new information
Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 yrs.)
Preoperational Stage (2-7 yrs.)
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 yrs)
Formal Operational Stage (11 and up)
Sensorimotor Stage
- Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical, motor actions
- At the beginning, newborns are limited to reflexive patterns
- By the end, 2 yr olds are beginning to operate with primitive symbols
Pre-Operational Stage
- Children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings
Operations
Internalized mental actions that allow children to do mentally what they previously did physically
Concrete Operational Stage
- Children can perform mental operations
- Logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought, as long as reasoning can be applied to concrete examples
- Algebra is too abstract for this stage
Formal Operational Stage
- Individuals move beyond concrete experiences and think in abstract, more logical terms
- Problem solving is more systematic and involves hypotheses
- Adolescents develop images of ideal circumstances
Vygotsky's SocioCultural Cognitive Theory
- Shares Piaget's view that children actively construct their own knowledge
- Emphasizes developmental analysis, the role of language, and social relations
- Like Piaget, Vygotsky's ideas were not introduced in America until the 1960's
Information Processing Approach
- People manipulate, monitor, and strategize about information
- memory and thinking are key
- gradually increases capacity for processing information
- allows learning of complex knowledge and skills
Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
- we can only study what can be directly observed and measured
- development is observable behavior that can be learned through experience with the environment
Classical Conditioning
- Ivan Pavlov
- Neutral stimulus can produce the same behavior as another stimulus through conditioning
An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation
- Does not follow any 1 theoretical approach
- selects and uses whatever is considered best from each theory
- acknowledges that no 1 theory provides a complete description and explanation of development, and each has made important contributions to under
Laboratories vs. Naturalistic Settings
- Laboratories are controlled settings from which many of the complex factors of the real world have removed. Criticized for being artificial
- Naturalistic observation occurs outside a laboratory in the "real world": places such as schools, home, museums
Interviews and Questionnaires
- Used to learn about experiences, beliefs, and feelings
- Involve concrete, specific, unambiguous questions
- problems may arise with the social desirability effect; when individuals respond in a way they think is most socially desirable, rather than how
Case Studies
- an in-depth look at an individual
- Used when unique aspects of a person's life cannot be duplicated
- Provides information about a person's fears, hopes, fantasies, traumatic experiences, etc.
- Findings are not readily generalizable
- Concern over rel
Standardized Tests
- Commercially prepared tests that assess individuals performance in different domains
- allow an individual's performance to be compared to the performance of others
* Used for:
- Outcome measures for research studies
- Helping psychologists and educator
Life-History Records
- Records of information about a lifetime chronology of events and activities
- Involve a combination of date records on education, work, family, and residence
- Using multiple materials enables comparison of info from varied sources, resulting in a more
Operant Conditioning
- B.F. Skinner demonstrated that the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior occurring again
- Consequences can be either rewards (increasing the likelihood of behavior recurrence), or punishment (decreasing this chan
Social Cognitive Theory
- Albert Bandura & Walter Mishel believe that cognitive processes are important mediators of environment-behavior connections
Ethological Theory
- Behavior is strongly influenced by biology
- Behavior is tied to evolution
- Behavior is characterized by critical periods
- European zoologist Konrad Lorenz identified imprinting
- John Bowlby theorizes about attachment.
Critical Period
- A fixed time period very early in development during which certain behaviors optimally emerge
Correlational Research
- Goal is to describe the strength of the relation between two or more events or characteristics
- The more strongly two events are correlated, the more effectively we can predict one from the other.
- It needs to be used with caution as correlation does
Experimental Research
- This allows researchers to determine the causes of behavior
- It uses experimentation: carefully regulated procesures in which one or more significant factors is manipulated, and all others held constant
- Experimental research involves independent and
Independent Variable
- The manipulated, influential, experimental factors
Dependent Variable
- The factors that are measured in an experiment.
They can change as the Independent Variable is manipulated.
Experimental Group
- Groups whose experiences in a study are manipulated
Control Group
- Groups who are treated in every way like the experimental groups except for the manipulated factors.
They serve as the baseline against which the effects of the manipulated condition can be compared.
Random Assignment
- The process of assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, reducing the likelihood that the experiment's results will be due to any preexisting differences between groups
Time Span of Research
- The Cross-Sectional Approach
- The Longitudinal Approach
- The Sequential Approach
Cross-Sectional Approach
Individuals of different ages are compared one at a time
Pros:
-Study can be accomplished in a short period of time
-Researchers don't have to wait for subjects to age
Cons:
-Provides no information about how individuals change
-Provides no information ab
Longitudinal Approach
The same individuals are studied over a period of time.
Pros:
- provide a wealth of information about stability and change in development
-provide insight into the importance of early experience for later development
Cons:
-Expensive and time consuming
-S
Sequential Approach (1)
A combination of the cross-sectional and longitudinal approach
-Begins with a cross-sectional study of individuals from different ages
- Months or years later, the same individuals are tested again along with a new group of subjects for each age level
Sequential Approach (2)
- Complex, expensive, and time consuming
- Provides information not attainable through using either the cross-sectional or longitudinal designs alone
- Especially helpful in examining cohort effects in Life-Span development
Cohort Effects
- Cohort effects are due to a person's time of birth or generation, but not to actual age
- They can powerfully affect the dependent measures in a study focused on age
- Age changes in one cohort can be examined and compared with age changes in another co