gray matter
matter in the developing brain consisting of closely packed neuronal bodies
white matter
matter in developing brain consisting of axons or nerve fibers that transmit information between neurons in distant regions of the brain
rough-and-tumble play
vigorous play involving wrestling, hitting, and chasing, often accompanied by laughing and screaming, done playfully among friends
body image
descriptive and evaluative beliefs about one's appearance
hypertension
chronically high blood pressure
acute medical conditions
illnesses that last a short time
chronic medical conditions
physical, developmental, behavioral, or emotional conditions that persist for at least 3 months
asthma
chronic respiratory disease characterized by sudden attacks of coughing, wheezing, and difficulty in breathing
diabetes
one of the most common diseases of childhood. It is characterized by high levels of glucose in the blood as a result of defective insulin production, ineffective insulin action, or both
concrete operations
3rd stage of Piagetian cognitive development, during which children develop logical but not abstract thinking
seriation
ability to arrange objects in a series according to one or more dimensions
transitive inference
the ability to infer a relationship between 2 objects by knowing the relationship of each to a 3rd object - a>b & b>c, thus a>c
class inclusion
the ability to see the relationship between a whole and its parts - roses + carnations = flowers, so roses can't be > flowers
inductive reasoning
children in the concrete operational stage use only this type of logical reasoning that moves from particular observations about members of a class to a general conclusion about that class - my dog barks and his dog barks, so all dogs bark
deductive reasoning
adolescents use this type of logical reasoning that moves from a general premise about a class to a conclusion about a particular member or members of the class - all dogs bark, Spot is a dog, so Spot barks
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
WISC-IV: individual intelligence test for school-age children which yields verbal and performance scores as well as a combined score
Otis-Lennon School Ability Test
OLSAT8: group intelligence test for kindergarten through 12th grade
cultural bias
tendency of intelligence tests to include items calling for knowledge or skills more familiar or meaningful to some cultural groups then to others
culture-free tests
intelligence tests that would have no culturally linked content - impossible to design
culture-fair tests
intelligence tests that deal with experiences common to various cultures, in an attempt to avoid cultural bias - also found to be impossible to design
culture-relevant tests
Sternberg: intelligence tests that would draw on and adjust for culturally related content
pragmatics
set of linguistic rules that govern the use of language for communication
syntax
how words are organized into phrases and sentences
English-immersion approach
approach to teaching English as a second language in which instruction is presented only in English - aka ESL, or English as a second language
bilingual education
system of teaching non-English speaking children in their native language while they learn English, and later switching to an all-English instruction
bilingual
fluent in 2 languages
two-way (dual-language) learning
approach to second-language education in which English speakers and non-English speakers learn together in their own and each other's languages
decoding
process of phonetic analysis by which a printed word is converted to spoken form before retrieval from long term memory
visually based retrieval
process of retrieving the sound of a printed word when seeing the word as a whole
phonetic (code-emphasis) approach
approach to teaching rearding that emphasizes decoding of unfamiliar words
whole-language approach
approach to teaching reading that emphasizes visual retrieval and use of contextual clues
metacognition
awareness of a person's own mental processes
social capital
family and community resources on which a person can draw
intellectual disability
significantly subnormal cognitive functioning. Also referred to as cognitive disability or mental retardation, IQ = 70 or less
dyslexia
developmental disorder in which reading achievement is substantially lower than predicted by IQ or age
learning disabilities (LDs)
disorders that interfere with specific aspects of learning and school achievement
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
syndrome characterized by persistent inattention and distractability, impulsivity, low tolerance for frustration, and inappropriate activity
creativity
ability to see situations in a new way, to produce innovations, or to discern previously unidentified problems and find novel solutions
convergent thinking
thinking aimed at finding the one right answer to a problem
divergent thinking
thinking that produces a variety of fresh, diverse possibilities
enrichment programs
programs for educating the gifted that broaden and deepen knowledge and skills through extra activities, projects, field trips, or mentoring
acceleration programs
programs for educating the gifted that move them through the curriculum at an unusually rapid pace
type 1 diabetes
the result of an insulin deficiency that occurs when insulin-producing cells in the pancreas are destroyed
type II diabetes
characterized by insulin resistance and found in overweight adults/children and older adults
accidental injuries
the leading cause of death among school-age US children with majority from traffic accidents, drowning or burns
spatial thinking
Piaget: concrete operational children can use a map to find an object, walk to and from school
cause and effect
Piaget: concrete operational children understand physical attributes of objects on each side of scale will affect the result - number of objects matters, whereas color does not
categorization
seriation, transitive inference, and class inclusion
identity
concrete operational child knows that clay ball reformed into snake is still the same clay, even though it changes shape
moral reasoning
three stages: pre operational = rigid obedience to all authority; concrete operational = increasing flexibility; stage 3 = equity
executive function
conscious control of thoughts, emotions, and actions to accomplish goals or solve problems
selective attention
the ability to deliberately direct one's attention and shut out distractions
inhibitory control
executive skill of the voluntary suppression of unwanted responses
metamemory
knowledge about the process of memory
mnemonic strategies
devices to aid memory:
external memory aids
rehearsal
organization
elaboration
external memory aids
mnemonic strategy - prompting by something outside the person - to do list
rehearsal
mnemonic strategy -conscious repetition - saying a phone number several times
organization
mnemonic strategy - grouping by categories to make it easier to recall
elaboration
mnemonic strategy - associating items to be remembered with something else, such as a phrase, scene or story
brain development and IQ
the pattern of devt of the prefrontal cortex has a certain amt of influence on IQ
schooling and IQ
schooling seems to increase tested intelligence
Race and SES on IQ
IQ test scores vary among racial/ethic groups - attributed mainly to environment
heredity and IQ
although there is strong evidence of a genetic influence on individual differences in intelligence, there is no direct evidence that IQ differences among ethnic, cultural, or racial groups are hereditary
culture and IQ
ethnic differences in IQ are attributed to cultural bias in test content
successful intelligence
Sternberg: the skills and knowledge needed for success within a particular social and cultural context
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
each person has several forms of intelligence
Gardner's Eight Intelligences
1. linguistic
2. logical-mathematical
3. spatial
4. musical
5. bodily-kinesthetic
6. interpersonal
7. intrapersonal
8. naturalist
linguistic intelligence
Gardner: ability to use and understand words and nuances of meaning
logical-mathematical intelligence
Gardner: ability to manipulate numbers and solve logical problems
spatial intelligence
Gardner: ability to find one's way around in an environment and judge relationships between objects and space
musical intelligence
Gardner: ability to perceive and create patterns of pitch and rhythm
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
ability to move with precision
interpersonal intelligence
ability to understand and communicate with others
intrapersonal intelligence
the ability to understand the self
naturalist intelligence
ability to distinguish species and their characteristics
Gardner critics
argue that his multiple intelligences are more accurately labeled as talents or abilities
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
identifies three elements of intelligence: componential element
experiential element
contextual element
componential element
Sternberg: the analytic aspect of intelligence - determines how efficiently people process info
experiential element
Sternberg: insightful or creative aspect of intelligence - determines how people approach novel or familiar tasks
contextual element
Sternberg: the practical aspic of intelligence - determines how people deal with their environment
tacit knowledge
Sternberg: information that is not formally taught or openly expressed, but is necessary to get ahead
Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test
Sternberg: STAT = test that seeks to measure analytic/componential, creative/experiential, and practical/contextual aspects of intelligence
Kaufmab Assessment Battery for Children
K-ABC-II = an individual test designed to evaluate cognitive abilities in children with diverse needs, and from varying cultural backgrounds
dynamic tests
Vygotsky - emphasize potential rather than present achievement
static tests
measure a child's current abilities
horizontal decalage
once a child learns a certain function, he or she does not have the capability to immediately apply the learned function to all problems
mental retardation
IQ = 70, 1/3 of all cases the cause is unknown