Jean Piaget
Four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. preoperational, 3. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational. He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation and accomodation
Sensorimotor stage
(from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly with concept of object permanence, impressions and motor activities
Preoperational stage
(from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use symbolic play and language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations, think abstractly or see another's perspective
Concrete operational stage
(from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically, make inferences, view things from more than one perspective and make classifications
Formal operational stage
(normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts, transfer knowledge and mentally process information
Lev Vygotsky
most famous for social development theory (of child cognitive development)
Idea that the potential for cognitive development depends upon the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD): a level of development attained when children engage in social behavior. Children learn through play/social interaction.
Lev Vygotsky's Theory
More Knowledgeable Other
According to Vygotsky, we turn to this as we learn tasks and skills. This may be a teacher, parent, or other adult. However, peers including other children may also serve as this
Zone of Proximal Development
In Vygotsky's theory, this is the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they recieve proper guidance and instruction
Lawrence Kohlberg
Famous for his theory of moral development in children; made use of moral dilemmas in assessment
Preconventional Morality
first level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior
Conventional Morality
second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior
Post Conventional Morality
Kohlberg's highest stage of morality- occurs late in life and is a personal morality, developed by the adult and which supersedes society's rules, laws, and restrictions
Kohlberg's Stage Theory
This is seen in the classroom with student participation in creating social contracts for a good classroom society
Bandura's Social Learning Theory
Emphasizing learning through observation, vicarious learning and modeling
According to Bandura, behavioral changes occur when?
Through attention, retention, reproduction of behavior and motivation to repeat behavior
Abraham Maslow
Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization
B.F. Skinner
Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning; people learn by responding to the environment rather than in response to stimuli
Erik Erikson
8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?
Maslow's lowest level
Most basic needs
The top level of Maslow's hierarchy; morality, creativity, lack of prejudice, problem solving
Self-actualization
The fourth level of Maslow's hierarchy
Self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of self and others
Maslow's physiological needs
Sleep, water, air, food
Second level of Maslow's hierarchy
Needs for safety and security: steady employment, health insurance, safe neighborhoods, and shelter
Third stage of Maslow's hierarchy
Social needs or love and belonging
Trust vs. Mistrust
If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently such as toileting, feeding and dressing
Initiative vs. Guilt
Erikson's third stage in which preschoolers find independence in planning, playing and other activities
Industry vs. Inferiority
Erikson's stage between 5 and 12 years, when the child learns intellectual skills, competence and achievement
Identity vs. role confusion
Erikson's stage during which adolescents search for and become their true selves, where they are going in life
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Erikson's stage in which individuals form deeply personal relationships, hold commitments, marry, begin families
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Erikson's stage of social development in which middle-aged people care for others and gain a sense of contribution to later generations and to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service
Integrity vs. Despair
Erikson's final stage in which those near the end of life look back and evaluate their lives, see broad truths and advise those earlier in life
Id
Freud's term for our inborn basic drives, operates on pleasure principle and demands immediate gratification
Ego
Freud's term for a person's conscious efforts to balance innate pleasure-seeking drives with the demands of society; understands reality and logic
Superego
Freud's term for the conscience; the internalized norms and values of our social groups, moralistic and judgmental part of personality
Projection
psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
Displacement
Shift an unacceptable impulse toward more acceptable object or person
Rationalization
Displaces anxiety provoking explanations with more comforting justifications
Montessori
A program that encourages young children to learn independently through exploration in multi age groupings
Sensitive periods
According to Montessori, when a child's mind is particularly open to learning specific skills or knowledge
Gesell
Believed that development was due primarily to maturation, belief that a child has to interact with nature in order to fully develop and reach its potential.
Operant conditioning
According to Skinner, includes positive and negative reinforcement, punishment and extinction
Punishment
According to Skinner, does not teach appropriate behaviors, and may result in undesirable behaviors such as aggression and negative emotions such as anxiety and fear
Assimilation
Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
Schema
According to Piaget, a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
Accommodation
According to Piaget, adapting or changing our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
Object Permanence
According to Piaget, awareness that things continue to exist even
when they cannot be sensed and occurs as babies gain experience with objects, as their memory abilities improve after 6 months
Centration
in Piaget's theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features
Egocentrism
in Piaget's theory, the pre-operational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
Conservation
In Piaget's theory, the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects