encoding
process by which information gets into memory
automaticity
ability to process information with little or no effort
strategy construction
creation of new procedures for processing information
metacognition
knowing about knowing" includes knowledge about when and where to use particular strategies for learning or for solving problems, helps people to perform many cognitive tasks more effectively
self modification
children learn to use what they have learned in previous circumstances to adapt their responses to a new situation (discovering new procedures for processing information)
active role
children play an ____________________________ in their own cognitive development.
improves, declines
changes in speed of processing information: _______________ dramatically through childhood and adolescence. ________________ from middle adulthood to late adulthood.
competence
processing speed is linked with ____________________ in thinking.
attention
the focusing of mental resources
selective attention
focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant
divided attention
concentrating on more than one activity at the same time
sustained attention
the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time (also called vigilance)
executive attention
involves action planning, allocating attention to goals, error detection and compensation, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances.
orienting/investigative process
attention during first year of life. directing attention to locations, recognizing objects and their features, attention becomes flexible and fast
habituation
decreased responsiveness to stimulus after repeated presentations
dishabituation
recovery of a habituated response after change in stimulation
joint attention
(7-8 mon) crawl, more mobile, individuals focus on same object or event and requires ability to track another's behavior
executive, sustained
Young children most advances in ______________ and ________________ attention.
planfulness of attention
film reflection in child's eyes, one could determine what they looked at, how long, etc.
adolescence
developmental stage: processing of irrelevant information decreases, ability to shift from one activity to another at will, better at multitasking, processing ability varies among adolescents
memory
retention of information over time, allows humans to span time in reflection over life's activities
encoding, retaining, storing
three main processes of memory
schema theory
many reasons for inaccuracy of memory, "we fill in the gaps", people construct and reconstruct memories, mold to fit ideas already in head
cultural specificity hypothesis
cultural environment affects experiences
females, males
______________ better than ________________ at episodic and emotion-linked memories, process information elaborately and in more detail.
Rovee-Collier
conducted research that demonstrates infants can remember perceptual-motor information.
implicit memory
memory without conscious recollection- memories of skills and routine procedures that are performed automatically
explicit memory
conscious memory of facts and experiences. Many believe that babies do not show this kind of memory until the second half of the first year. improves substantially during the second year of life.
infantile amnesia
adults recall little or none of first three years of life. Causes: immature prefrontal lobe (for episodic memory), processing of information, language/speech
short term memory
retain information up to 15 to 20 seconds without rehearsal (span very limited)
working memory
mental workbench for manipulating and assembling information, more active and powerful than short term memory, make decisions, solve problems, comprehend written problems
long term memory
relatively permanent, unlimited memory
imagery
creating mental images for verbal information, better utilized as age increases
elaboration
engaging in more extensive processing of information (self-referencing)
fuzzy trace theory
two types of memory representations.
verbatim memory trace: precise details
gist: central idea of information (saves time)
*both are needed
knowledge
____________________ influences what people notice and how they organize, represent, and interpret information.
episodic memory
retention of information about the where and when of life's happenings
autobiographical memory
personal recollection of events and facts. stored as episodic memories.
reminiscence bump
adults remember more events from the second and third decades of their lives than from other decades. this is found more for positive than negative life events.
semantic memory
a person's knowledge about the world, "everyday knowledge" about meanings of words, famous individuals, important places, etc.
better
younger adults have ______________ episodic memory than older adults have.
longer
older adults often take ______________ to retrieve semantic information.
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
individuals can't quite retrieve familiar information but have the feeling that they should be able to retrieve it. older adults more likely to experience this than younger adults.
less
implicit memory is _______ likely to be adversely affected by aging than explicit memory.
source memory
the ability to remember where one learned something
prospective memory
remembering to do something in the future, such as remembering to take your medicine or remembering to do an errand.
thinking
manipulating and transforming information in memory
concepts
cognitive grouping of similar objects, events, people, or ideas. without these you would see each object and event as unique; you would not be able to make any generalizations
7 months
perceptual categorization can occur as young as _______________ of age. categorizations are based on similar perceptual features of objects, such as size, color, and movement.
critical thinking
grasping deeper meaning of ideas, open minded. ask what, why, how, etc. examine facts and determine evidence, recognize one or more explanations exist, evaluated before accepting as truth, speculate beyond what is known
scientific thinking
domain specific thinking, aimed at identifying causal relationships, children emphasize causal mechanisms: important differences in reasoning, cling to old theories regardless of evidence, more influenced by happenstance, have difficulty developing experi
metamemory
individuals' knowledge about memory, is an especially important form of metacognition. includes general knowledge about memory, such as knowing that recognition tests are easier than recall tests, encompasses knowledge about one's own memory.
theory of mind
refers to awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others.
age 2-3
What age does awareness of emotions, perceptions, and desires occur in metacognition?
age 5
What age does one learn realization of false beliefs in metacognition?
age 7
What age does one find a deepening appreciation of the mind itself in metacognition?
middle/late childhood
What developmental stage is the mind seen as active constructor of knowledge in metacognition?
cognitive mechanics
hardware" of the mind, consist of the speed and accuracy of the processes involved in sensory input, attention, visual and motor memory, discrimination, comparison, and categorization. strong influence of biology, heredity, and health on this. decline wi
cognitive pragmatics
software programs" of the mind, include reading and writing skills, language comprehension, educational qualifications, professional skills, and the type of knowledge about the self and life skills that help us to master or cope with life. improvement in