active-passive child issue
The issue of whether children are simply at the mercy of the environment (passive child) or actively influence their own development through their own unique individual characteristics (active child).
applied developmental science
A scientific discipline that uses child-development research to promote healthy development, particularly for vulnerable children and families.
baby biographies
Detailed, systematic observations of individual children, often by famous scientists, that helped to pave the way for objective research on children.
cognitive-developmental perspective
An approach to development that focuses on how children think and on how their thinking changes over time
cohort
a group of people born in the same year or same generation
continuity-discontinuity issue
an issue concerned with whether a developmental phenomenon follows a smooth progression throughout the life span or a series of abrupt shifts
correlation coefficient
A statistic that reveals the strength and direction of the relation between two variables.
correlational study
A research design in which investigators look at relations between variables as they exist naturally in the world.
critical period
A time in development when a specific type of learning can take place; before or after the critical period, the same learning is difficult or even impossible
cross-sectional study
a research design in which people of different ages are compared at the same point in time.
culture
the knowledge, attitudes, and behavior associated with a group of people.
dependent variable
in an experiment, the behavior that is observed after other variables are manipulated
ego
according to Freud, the rational component of the personality; develops during the first few years of life.
ethological theory
a theory in which development is seen from an evolutionary perspective and behaviors are examined for their survival value.
experiment
a systematic way of manipulating factors that a researcher thinks cause a particular behavior.
field experiment
a type of experiment in which the researcher manipulates independent variables in a natural setting so that the results are more likely to be representative of behavior in real-world settings.
id
according to Freud, the element of personality that wants immediate gratification of bodily wants and needs; present at birth
imitation (observational learning)
learning that takes place simply by observing others.
imprinting
learning that occurs during a critical period soon after birth or hatching, as demonstrated by chicks creating an emotional bond with the first moving object they see.
independent variable
the factor that is manipulated by the researcher in an experiment
informed consent
a person's decision to participate in research after having been told enough about the research to make an educated design; children are not legally capable of giving informed consent.
longitudinal study
a research design in which a single cohort is studied over multiple times of measurement
maturational theory
The view that child development reflects a specific and prearranged scheme or plan within the body.
meta-analysis
a tool that allows researchers to synthesize the results of many studies to estimate relations between variables.
microgenetic study
a special type of longitudinal study in which children are tested repeatedly over a span of days or weeks, with the aim of observing change directly as it occurs.
naturalistic observation
a method of observation in which children are observed as they behave spontaneously in a real-life situation.
nature-nurture issue
an issue concerning the manner in which genetic and environmental factors influence development.
negative correlation
a relation between two variables in which larger values on one variable are associated with smaller values on a second variable
operant conditioning
a view of learning, proposed by Skinner, that emphasizes reward and punishment.
population
a broad group of children that are the usual focus of research in child development
positive correlation
a relation between two variables in which larger values on one variable are associated with larger values on a second variable
psychodynamic theory
a view first formulated by Sigmund Freud in which developmental is largely determined by how well people resolve conflicts they face at different ages.
psychosocial theory
a theory proposed by Erik Erikson in which personality development is the result of the interaction of maturation and societal demands.
punishment
applying an aversive stimulus or removing an attractive stimulus; an action that discourages the reoccurence of the response that it follows.
reinforcement
a consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated in the future.
reliability
as applied to tests, how consistent test scores are from one testing time to another.
research design
an overall conceptual plan for research; the two most common are correlational and experimental designs.
response bias
the tendency for research participants to respond in ways that are socially more acceptable.
sample
a group of children drawn from a population that participates in research
self-efficacy
the belief that one is capable of performing a certain task
self reports
a measurement method in which children respond to questions about specific topics
social cognitive theory
a theory developed by Albert Bandura in which children use reward, punishment, and imitation to try to understand what goes on in their world
structured observation
a method in which the researcher creates a setting to elicit the behavior of interest.
superego
according to freud, the moral component of the personality that has incorporated adult standards of right and wrong.
systematic observation
a method of observation in which investigators watch children and carefully record what they do or say.
theory
an organized set of ideas that is designed to explain development
validity
as applied to tests, the extent to which the test measures what is supposed to measure.
variable
any factor subject to change.