Development
the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span
Life-span Perspective
emphasizes developmental change throughout adulthood as well as during childhood, development occurs throughout life
Normative Age-Graded Influences
are similar for individuals in a particular age group, these influences include biological processes such as puberty and menopause as well as sociocultural or environmental processes such as beginning formal education and retirement
Normative History-Graded Influences
are common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances, American baby boomers shared experiences that included the Cuban missile crisis, the assassination of John F. Kennedy, and the Beatles invasion
Nonnormative life events
are unusual occurrences that have a major impact on an individual's life, these events do not happen to all people, they may influence people in different ways, death of a parent as a child, teen pregnancy
Information Processing Theory
coginitive theory, emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it, does not describe development as stage-like, gradually increase knowledge
Biological Processes
produce changes in an individual's physical nature, changes in motor skills, brain development, genes, height and weight gains
Cognitive Processes
refer to changes in the individual's thought process, intelligence, and language, solving a crossword puzzle, imagining what it would be like to be a movie star, watching a mobile swinging above a crib, put together a two-word sentence, memorizing a poem
Socioemotional Processes
involve changes in the individual's relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality, infant's smile to a parent's touch, toddler's aggressive attack on a playmate, a teen's joy at senior prom, affection of an elderly coupl
Nature-Nurture Issue
involves the extent to which development is influenced by nature or by nurture, nature refers to an organism's biological inheritance, nurture to its environmental experiences
Stability-Change Issue
involves the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change
Continuity-Discontinuity Issue
focuses on the degree to which development involves either gradual, cumulative change, or distinct changes
Hypotheses
specific assertions and predictions that can be tested, suggested by theories
Psychoanalytic Theories
describe development as primarily unconscious (beyond awareness) and heavily colored by emotion, behavior is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind must be analyzed to understand behavior, early experiences with parents are
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory
ecological theories emphasize environmental factors, this theory in particular holds that development reflects the influence of several environmental systems, it identifies five environmental systems: microsystems, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and
Erikson's Theory
theory that includes eight stages of development that unfold as we go through life- trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus identity confusion, intimacy versus isolation
Piaget's Theory
cognitive theory, states that children go through four stages of cognitive development as they actively construct their understanding of the world; sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage
Ethology
stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and characterized by critical or sensitive periods
Social Cognitive Theory
holds that behavior, environment, and cognition are the key factors in development
Naturalistic Observation
observing behavior in real-world settings, making no effort to manipulate or control the situation
Cohort Effects
due to a person's time of birth, era, or generation but not to actual age
Case Study
an in depth look at a single individual
Descriptive Research
research that aims to observe and record behavior
Correlational Research
the goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics, the more strongly the events are correlated (associated) the more effectively we can predict one event from another
Correlation Coefficient
numerical measure, a number based on a statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables
Experiment
is a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant
Longitudinal Approach
a research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more
Active Genotype-Environment Correlations
correlations that exist when children seek out environments that they find compatible and stimulating, children who are musically inclined are likely to select musical environments in which they can successfully perform their skills
Adoption Study
a study in which investigators seek to discover whether, in behavior or psychological characteristics, adopted children are more like their adoptive parents, who provided a home environment, or more like their biological parents who contributed their here
Behavior Genetics
the field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits and development
Chromosomes
threadlike structures composed of DNA which are held in the nucleus of each human cell
DNA
a complex molecule that has a double helix shape and contains genetic information
Down Syndrome
a chromosomally transmitted form of intellectual disability caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21, round face, flattened skull, extra fold of skin over the eyelids, a protruding tongue, short limbs, and intellectual/motor disabilities
Embryonic Period
the period of prenatal development that occurs from two to eight weeks after conception, during this period the rate of cell differientation intensifies, support systems for the cells form, and organ appear
Epigenetic View
perspective that emphasizes that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment, involves the actual molecular modification of the DNA strand as a result of environmental inputs in ways that alter gene
Evocative Genotype-Environment Corrleations
correlations that exist when the child's characteristics elicit certain types of environment, active/smiling children receive more social stimulation than passive, quiet children do
Evolutionary Psychology
a branch of psychology that emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and "survival of the fittest" in shaping behavior
Fertilization
a stage in reproduction when an egg and a sperm fuse to create a single cell, called a zygote
Fetal Period
the prenatal period of development that begins two months after conception and lasts seven months, on average
Fragile X Syndrome
a chromosomal disorder involving an abnormality in the X chromosome, which becomes constricted and often breaks, mental deficiency or intellectual disability, autism, learning disability, short attention span, more common in males than in females because
Genes
units of heredity information composed of DNA, genes help cells to reproduce themselves and assemble proteins that direct body processes
Genotype
all of a person's actual genetic material
Germinal Period
the period of prenatal development that takes place during the first two weeks after conception; it includes the creation of the zygote, continued cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the wall of the uterus
Klinefelter Syndrome
a chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXY instead of XY, males with this disorder have underdeveloped testes, enlarged breasts, and become tall, majority are diagnosed as adults
Meiosis
a specialized form of cell division that occurs to form eggs and sperm which are called gametes
Mitosis
cellular reproduction in which the cell's nucleus duplicates itself; two new cells are formed, each containing the same DNA as the original cell, arranged in the same 23 pairs of chromosomes
Zygote
a single cell formed through fertilization, egg and sperm
Nonshared Environmental Eperiences
the child's own unique experiences, both within the family and outside the family, that are not shared by another sibling, different school groups or friend groups
Organogensis
process of organ formation that takes place during the first two months of prenatal development
Passive Genotype-Environment Correlations
correlations that exist when the biological parents who are genetically related to the child, provide a rearing environment for the child, "reading" example
Phenotype
observable and measurable characteristics (physical or psychological) of an individual, such as height, hair color, and intelligence
Phenylketonuria(PKU)
genetic disorder in which the individual cannot properly metabolize phenylalanine, an amino acid, results from a recessive gene, easily detected, easily treated with special diet, may cause intellectual disability and hyperactivity if left untreated
Age of Viability
the point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely, as early as six months
Shared Environmental Experiences
siblings' common experiences, such as their parents' personalities or intellectual orientation, the family's socioeconomic status, and the neighborhood in which they live
Sickle-Cell Anemia
a genetic disorder common in African Americans that impairs the body's red blood cells, a recessive gene causes the red blood cell to become a hook shaped "sickle" that cannot carry oxygen properly and dies quickly, the body's cells do not receive adequat
Teratogen
any agent that can potentially cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral outcomes
Turner Syndrome
a chromosomal disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing, making the person XO instead of XX, or part of one X chromosome is deleted, short in stature, webbed neck, might be infertile, difficulty in mathematics, good verbal capability
Twin Study
a study in which the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins
XYY Syndrome
a chromosomal disorder in which males have and extra Y chromosome, XYY males are no more aggressive or likely to commit crimes than are XY males
Amygdala
a part of the brain's limbic system that is the seat of emotions such as anger, matures much earlier than the prefrontal cortex
Cellular Clock Theory
Leonard Hayflick's theory that the number of times human cells can divide is about 75 to 80, as we age our cells become less able to divide, may be due to the tips of chromosomes (telomeres) becoming shorter and shorter
Cephalocaudal Pattern
the sequence in which the fastest growth occurs at the of the body-with physical growth in size, weight, and feature differentiation gradually working from top to bottom
Climacteric
the midlife transition during which fertility declines
Corpus Callosum
a large bundle of axon fibers that connects the brain's left and right hemispheres, thickens in adolescence, and thickening improves adolescents' ability to process information
Estradiol
a type of estrogen associated in girls with breast, uterine, and skeletal developement
Free-radical Theory
a microbiological theory of aging stating that people age because when their cells metabolize energy, they generate waste that includes unstable oxygen molecules, known as free radicals, that damage DNA and other structures
Gonadotropins
hormones that stimulate the testes or ovaries
Gonads
the sex glands, the testes in males and ovaries in females
Growth Hormone Deficiency
a medical condition caused by problems arising in the pituitary gland, in which the body does not produce enough growth hormone
Hormonal Stress Theory
the theory that aging in the body's hormonal system can lower resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease
Hormones
powerful chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands and carried through the body by the bloodstream
Hypothalamus
a structure in the brain that is involved with eating and sexual behavior
Lateralization
specialization of function in one hemisphere or the other of the cerebral cortex
Sleep Debt
the cumulative effect of not getting enough sleep, large sleep debt may lead to mental and/or physical fatigue, try to catch up by sleeping till noon on the weekends
Menarche
a girl's first menstrual period, comes rather late in the pubertal cycle
Mitochondrial Theory
the theory that aging is caused by the decay of mitochondria, which are tiny cellular bodies that supply energy for cell function, growth, and repair
Neurogenesis
the generation of new neurons
Pituitary Gland
an important endocrine gland that controls growth and regulates the activity of other glands
Prefrontal Cortex
the highest level of the frontal lobes that is involved in reasoning, decision making, and self control
Proximodistal Pattern
the sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities
Puberty
a period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes during early adolescence
SIDS
condition that occurs when an infant stops breathing, usually during the night, and suddenly dies without an apparent cause, highest cause of infant death in the US
Myelination
the process of encasing axons with a myelin sheath, which helps increase the speed and efficiency of information processing
Why is the study of life-span development important?
helps to prepare us for the future and to identify what to expect and what to not expect
What are the eight main characteristics of the life-span perspective?
development is lifelong, development is multidimensional, development is multidirectional, development is plastic, developmental science is multidisciplinary, development is contextual, development involves growth maintenance and regulation of loss, devel
What are eight main developmental periods?
prenatal period, infancy, early childhood, middle and late childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, late adulthood