Thinking
manipulation of mental representations
Cognition
mental activities involved in the acquisition, storage, retrieval and use of knowledge
John Watson
proposed thinking as merely subvocal speech and is not mental activity. Others disagree- individuals who can not speak can think
concept
basic element of thought, represents a class of objects, people or events that share common qualities. They allow us to think about something new by relating to something we already know
mental imagery
mental representations of things that are not physically present
analog code (Shepard, Metzler & Kosslyn)
mental images stored as a representation that closely resembles a physical object
propositions
mental images stored as abstract descriptions
Cognitive maps
mental images of what is where (particular spatial arrangements)
Reasoning
transforming information to reach a conclusion, includes evaluating and generating arguments
inductive reasoning
reasoning from the specific to the general (drawing conclusions based on experience with one member of a category)
deductive reasoning
reasoning from the general to the specific (making a prediction based on a theory)
Logical reasoning
mental procedures that yield valid conclusions
Syllogisms
logical reasoning, arguments made up of two propositions, called premisees, and a conclusion based on these premises. They require deductive reasoning. (this type of reasoning can sometimes be invalid)
analogy
logical reasoning always made up of four parts: relationship between the first two parts is the same as the relationship between the last two parts (require inductive reasoning)
Problem solving
mental activity used to reach a certain goal that is not readily available, includes understanding the problem, planning a solution, carrying out solution, and evaluation
Algorithms
problem solving: every possible solution is explored. Problem will be solved eventually, can be time consuming
Heuristics
problem solving: "Rules of thumb" shortcuts that help solve problems. No guarantee a solution will be reached
Subgoals, means-ends
problem solving: intermediate steps for solving a problem
Analogy
problem solving: solution to earlier problem is used to solve current problem
Working backwards
problem solving: begin at the goal and work towards the start
Artificial intelligence, expert systems
problem solving: computer programs that solve problems, mostly with algorithms
Incubation
problem solving: setting problem aside for a while
Trial & Error
problem solving: solutions tried until one is found, can be time consuming
Functional Fixedness
inability to solve a problem because the function we assign remains fixed
Mental set
tendency to persist with old patterns for problem solving even when they are not successful
Confirmation Bias
tendency to confirm rather than refute a hypothesis even when there is strong evidence against it.
divergent thinking
creative thinking that produces many different correct answers to the same problem
Convergent thinking
one correct answer is expected, not related to creativity
availability heuristic
decision making involving judging the probability of an event by how easily examples come to mind
representativeness heuristic
decision making where you decide if the sample you are judging matches the prototype, usually leads to the correct choice
anchoring heuristic
decision making based on an estimation of an events probability of occurrence them make adjustments to estimate based on additional information
additive model
decision making where we rate attributes of each alternative then select the one with the highest sum of ratings
Jean Piaget
described cognitive development of children
Piaget's four stages of cognitive development
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations
sensorimotor stage
Piaget, 0-18 months, sensory input and motor responses, intelligence is nonverbal and nonsymbolic, infants lack object permanence
preoperational stage
Piaget, age 2-7, rapid language & symbolic thinking (limitations include: irreversibility, centration, egocentrism)
concrete operations
Piaget, age 7-12, understand conservation, can decenter attention and understand reversibility (difficulty with hypothetical situations)
Formal operations
Piaget, age 12+, can handle hypotheticals and scientific reasoning, logical and systematic thinking (algebra, literary, metaphor)
Scheme
Piaget, basic thought about the world, objects, events
Organization
Piaget, combining and integrating simple schemes
Adaptation
Piaget, modifying existing schemes to fit new experiences
Assimilation
Piaget, interpreting event based on current scheme or thought structure
Accommodation
Piaget, Adjusting a scheme based on experience & understanding
Organization/clustering
memory strategy involving semantic grouping of materials into meaningful units
Metamemory
one's knowledge about memory, person-task-strategy
Memory
storing of information over time
Encoding
process of placing information into memory
Storage
process of retaining information in memory
Retrieval
process of getting information out of memory
Craik & Lockhart- 3 levels for encoding
structural/visual codes - phonemic/acoustic codes - semantic/meaning
Sensory memory
holds sensory info for brief period after physical stimulus is gone
selective perception/attention
allows only specific info to enter our conscious awareness at one time
Iconic sensory memories (icons)
visual representations that last for only 1 second in sensory memory
Echoic sensory memories (echos)
sound sensory memories that may last for several seconds
Short term memory STM
where conscious thinking and processing for info take place- what you are thinking about right now (20-30 seconds) 5-9 bits or chunks
memory span
measure of the capacity of short term memory
long term memory LTM
permanent storehouse of information, knowledge-skills-memories
proposition
smallest unit of information that makes sense
Declarative memory
fact memory- names, dates, events includes semantic & episodic memory
Procedural memory
skill memory, remembering how to do things
Eidetic memory
rare; long lasting images of scenes that can be scanned as if physically present
Mnemonics
strategies for remembering information
retrieval
bringing information from long term memory into short term memory so that it can be used or examined
recall
retrieval method, material remembered with few or no retrieval cues
Recognition
material remembered through identification of the correct response (multiple choice)
encoding specificity principle
retrieval cues are more efficient when they are coded when information is learned.
Locus dependent learning
study or learning in a location or context similar to where we will be tested
serial position effect
recall is better with items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end of a list (recency effect)
decay theory
forgetting, info that is not used
Interference theory
forgetting, other learning sets get in the way (can be proactive or retroactive)
Retrieval failure
forgetting, not enough retrieval cues to remember
encoding failure
forgetting, information was never learned- never placed in permanent memory
consolidation failure
forgetting, disruption in the consolidation process
Motivated forgetting
disturbing, anxiety producing are no longer consciously available