CLEP Human Growth & Development Cognitive Development

Thinking

manipulation of mental representations

Cognition

mental activities involved in the acquisition, storage, retrieval and use of knowledge

John Watson

proposed thinking as merely subvocal speech and is not mental activity. Others disagree- individuals who can not speak can think

concept

basic element of thought, represents a class of objects, people or events that share common qualities. They allow us to think about something new by relating to something we already know

mental imagery

mental representations of things that are not physically present

analog code (Shepard, Metzler & Kosslyn)

mental images stored as a representation that closely resembles a physical object

propositions

mental images stored as abstract descriptions

Cognitive maps

mental images of what is where (particular spatial arrangements)

Reasoning

transforming information to reach a conclusion, includes evaluating and generating arguments

inductive reasoning

reasoning from the specific to the general (drawing conclusions based on experience with one member of a category)

deductive reasoning

reasoning from the general to the specific (making a prediction based on a theory)

Logical reasoning

mental procedures that yield valid conclusions

Syllogisms

logical reasoning, arguments made up of two propositions, called premisees, and a conclusion based on these premises. They require deductive reasoning. (this type of reasoning can sometimes be invalid)

analogy

logical reasoning always made up of four parts: relationship between the first two parts is the same as the relationship between the last two parts (require inductive reasoning)

Problem solving

mental activity used to reach a certain goal that is not readily available, includes understanding the problem, planning a solution, carrying out solution, and evaluation

Algorithms

problem solving: every possible solution is explored. Problem will be solved eventually, can be time consuming

Heuristics

problem solving: "Rules of thumb" shortcuts that help solve problems. No guarantee a solution will be reached

Subgoals, means-ends

problem solving: intermediate steps for solving a problem

Analogy

problem solving: solution to earlier problem is used to solve current problem

Working backwards

problem solving: begin at the goal and work towards the start

Artificial intelligence, expert systems

problem solving: computer programs that solve problems, mostly with algorithms

Incubation

problem solving: setting problem aside for a while

Trial & Error

problem solving: solutions tried until one is found, can be time consuming

Functional Fixedness

inability to solve a problem because the function we assign remains fixed

Mental set

tendency to persist with old patterns for problem solving even when they are not successful

Confirmation Bias

tendency to confirm rather than refute a hypothesis even when there is strong evidence against it.

divergent thinking

creative thinking that produces many different correct answers to the same problem

Convergent thinking

one correct answer is expected, not related to creativity

availability heuristic

decision making involving judging the probability of an event by how easily examples come to mind

representativeness heuristic

decision making where you decide if the sample you are judging matches the prototype, usually leads to the correct choice

anchoring heuristic

decision making based on an estimation of an events probability of occurrence them make adjustments to estimate based on additional information

additive model

decision making where we rate attributes of each alternative then select the one with the highest sum of ratings

Jean Piaget

described cognitive development of children

Piaget's four stages of cognitive development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations

sensorimotor stage

Piaget, 0-18 months, sensory input and motor responses, intelligence is nonverbal and nonsymbolic, infants lack object permanence

preoperational stage

Piaget, age 2-7, rapid language & symbolic thinking (limitations include: irreversibility, centration, egocentrism)

concrete operations

Piaget, age 7-12, understand conservation, can decenter attention and understand reversibility (difficulty with hypothetical situations)

Formal operations

Piaget, age 12+, can handle hypotheticals and scientific reasoning, logical and systematic thinking (algebra, literary, metaphor)

Scheme

Piaget, basic thought about the world, objects, events

Organization

Piaget, combining and integrating simple schemes

Adaptation

Piaget, modifying existing schemes to fit new experiences

Assimilation

Piaget, interpreting event based on current scheme or thought structure

Accommodation

Piaget, Adjusting a scheme based on experience & understanding

Organization/clustering

memory strategy involving semantic grouping of materials into meaningful units

Metamemory

one's knowledge about memory, person-task-strategy

Memory

storing of information over time

Encoding

process of placing information into memory

Storage

process of retaining information in memory

Retrieval

process of getting information out of memory

Craik & Lockhart- 3 levels for encoding

structural/visual codes - phonemic/acoustic codes - semantic/meaning

Sensory memory

holds sensory info for brief period after physical stimulus is gone

selective perception/attention

allows only specific info to enter our conscious awareness at one time

Iconic sensory memories (icons)

visual representations that last for only 1 second in sensory memory

Echoic sensory memories (echos)

sound sensory memories that may last for several seconds

Short term memory STM

where conscious thinking and processing for info take place- what you are thinking about right now (20-30 seconds) 5-9 bits or chunks

memory span

measure of the capacity of short term memory

long term memory LTM

permanent storehouse of information, knowledge-skills-memories

proposition

smallest unit of information that makes sense

Declarative memory

fact memory- names, dates, events includes semantic & episodic memory

Procedural memory

skill memory, remembering how to do things

Eidetic memory

rare; long lasting images of scenes that can be scanned as if physically present

Mnemonics

strategies for remembering information

retrieval

bringing information from long term memory into short term memory so that it can be used or examined

recall

retrieval method, material remembered with few or no retrieval cues

Recognition

material remembered through identification of the correct response (multiple choice)

encoding specificity principle

retrieval cues are more efficient when they are coded when information is learned.

Locus dependent learning

study or learning in a location or context similar to where we will be tested

serial position effect

recall is better with items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end of a list (recency effect)

decay theory

forgetting, info that is not used

Interference theory

forgetting, other learning sets get in the way (can be proactive or retroactive)

Retrieval failure

forgetting, not enough retrieval cues to remember

encoding failure

forgetting, information was never learned- never placed in permanent memory

consolidation failure

forgetting, disruption in the consolidation process

Motivated forgetting

disturbing, anxiety producing are no longer consciously available