What is liposuction
Surgical removal of fat
What is the basic chemical structure of a fat/lipid molecule
Glycerol + 3 fatty acid chains
Define peristalsis
waves of smooth muscle contraction
Where does digestion of protein begin in the human body
Stomach
What two organs release secretions into the small intestine that aid
in the digestion of lipids
What are their secretions and what function does each perform
Pancreas + Liver
Liver produces Bile which physically emulsifies fat and this
provides a larger surface area for the enzymatic activity
Pancreas produces pancreatic enzyme which attacks small fat molecules
Where are lipids absorbed in our digestive system
Lecteals in villi of intestines
Briefly state what the basal metabolic rate (BMR) tells you about the
human body
How much energy your body uses by only breathing
Where is the major site of fat deposition in
Females?
Males?
Females: breast and around hips
Males: around the waist and internal organs
What are functions of stored fat in our bodies
Insulation
Energy storage
Temperature regulation
What specific layer of the tongue do you find the taste buds
mucosa
What specific tissue type lines the lumen of the esophagous?
How is this tissue type adapted for its location and function
Stratified squamous epithelium
It is rapidly regenerated and pretty thick
What organ is this and label what is in the box.
Histology slide of the tongue
Box is taste buds that are located on the tongue papillae
What type of organ is this?
Esophagus
Know:
Stratified squamous epithelium, submucosa with blood vessels, and
muscularis externa
Label
1. Parotid salivary gland
2. Sublingual salivary gland
3. Submandibular salivary gland
List the order that food passes through the gastrointestinal cavity
starting at the mouth and ending with the anus
Mouth, oropharynx, laryngopharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ilium), large intestine (cecum,
ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid
colon), rectum, and anus
4 layers/tunics of digestive system
1. Mucosa: the innermost lining of tube, a layer of connective tissue
containing blood vessels, nerves, and glands
2. Submucosa: beneath the mucosa, a layer of connective tissue
containing blood vessels, nerves, and glands
3. Muscularis: several layers of smooth muscle beneath the
submucosa. an inner circular and outer longitudinal layer
4. Serosa (adventicia): outermost layer of connective tissue or
simple epithelium
What type of organ and label the boxes
Small intestine (Jejunum)
1. Villi
2. Mucosa
3. Submucosa
4. Muscularis
NOT shown but Serosa is above muscularis and it is a single cell
basement membrane
What type of organ and label the boxes
Small intestine (jejunum)
1. Simple columnar epithelium
2. Goblet cells (mucous cells)
What type of organ is this
Esophagus
What type of organ is this and label the boxes
Stomach
1. Gastric pits
2. Simple Columnar epithelium
3. Lamina Propria
What type of organ is this
Stomach
What type of organ is this and label the box
Histology slide of the Colon
Box is goblet cell
What type of organ is this and label the blue arrow
Histology slide of colon
Blue arrow is simple columnar epithelium
What type of organ is this and label the boxes
Liver
1. Central vein
2. Portal triad area
What type of organ is this and label the boxes
Pancreas
1. Pancreatic islets
2. Pancreatic acini
Functions of the liver
Produce the bile salts which are used in the digestion of fats
Functions of Pancreas
Produce "pancreatic juice" which helps neutralize acid
(buffer is HCO3-) entering the duodenum and produces proteases,
amylases, and lipases
Which system does the lacteal system bypass and where does its
contents go to?
Lacteal system bypasses the liver and carries its contents directly
to the right atrium
Which products of digestion are carried in the blood to the liver
Glucose, galactose, and fructose (simple sugars), and amino acids
Which products of digestion are carried via the lacteal system
Fatty acids
During the first hour after a heavy meal, how does the concentration
of glucose in the blood going from the small intestine to the liber
compare to the concentration entering the right side of the heart
More going from small intestine to the liver
This is because glucose enters the liver and not the lacteal
system. If it were fatty acids instead, then more would be entering
the right side of the heart
Types of muscles involved in digestion
Skeletal and smooth muscles
Phases of swallowing/deglutition
Buccal phase: voluntarily controlled and started by the tongue
Pharyngeal-esophageal phase: Involuntarily and delivers swallowed
contents to the stomach
What causes the audible sounds when someone drinks water
First sound is when water splashes against the gastroesophageal sphincter.
Second sound is when the peristaltic wave of the esophagus arrives
at the sphincter and the sphincter opens, which allows water to gurgle
into the stomach
What are enzymes and functions
Large protein molecules, biological catalysts that increase the rate
of chemical reaction without becoming of the product
What is a hydrolases
Hydrolytic enzymes that break down food molecules by adding water to
the molecular bonds, cleaving the bonds between the subunits or
monomers. They are specific
Define in vitro
Takes place in test tube
As digestion occurs, starch (increases/decreases) and sugar (increases/decreases)
As digestion occurs, starches decrease and sugar increases
What is starch and how is it broken down?
Starch is a carbohydrate and is broken down via salivary amylases
(produced by salivary gland). This process occurs in the mouth.
Starch is also broken down by pancreatic amylase (produced by the
pancreas). This occurs in the small intestine
Broken down into Dextrin (di- and trisaccharides)
Examples of disaccharides and what breaks them down in the small intestine
Lactose is broken down by lactase
Maltose is broken down by maltase
Sucrose is broken down by sucrase
Lactose is broken down into what monomer(s)
Glucose and galactose
Maltose is broken down into what monomer(s)
Glucose
Sucrose is broken down into what monomer(s)
Glucose and fructose
Where are monosaccharides absorbed and transported to
Absorbed in the intestinal villi and transported via the hepatic
portal vein to the liver
What does IKI test for (colors too)
It indicates if there is starch present
A blue-black color indicates a positive starch test
No color change indicates negative test (remains yellow)
What does Benedict's solution test for (colors too)
It tests for maltose
If green to orange precipitate forms, this is a positive sugar test
No color change indicates negative test (remains green)
Where are amino acids absorbed and transported to
Absorbed in the intestinal villi and transported via the hepatic
portal vein to the liver
What breaks down proteins and into what?
Pepsin in the stomach (with the presence of HCL) breaks down proteins
into large polypeptides
What breaks down large polypeptides
Pancreatic enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase) in
the small intestine breaks large polypeptides into small peptides
What breaks down small peptides
Small intestine enzymes like (aminopeptidases, and dipeptidases) in
the small intestine break them down into amino acids
What is trypsin and what does it do
Enzyme that is produced by the pancreas and hydrolyzes proteins into
small fragments (proteoses, peptones, and peptides)
What is BAPNA and what does it indicate
BAPNA is a synthetic protein substrate
When solution goes from colorless to bright yellow, it indicates
the presence and activity of an enzyme that is capable of peptide
bond hydrolysis (i.e. presence of hydrolysis)
No color change indicates no hydrolysis
Where is pepsin produced
Cells lining the stomach (gastric mucosa) produce the enzyme
pepsinogen and HCL and HCL reacts with pepsinogen creating pepsin
What does the Biuret Test indicate and color
Biuret Test indicates of amino acids
If solution is lavender/pink, it is indicates amino acids
If solution is purple-blue, it indicates undigested proteins
What enzymes breakdown unemulsified fats and what are they broken
down into
Lingual and gastric lipases, which are emulsified by bile salts, and
broken down into pancreatic lipases which occur into the small intestine.
Final product is mono-,diglycerides and free fatty acids
Describe the term pancreatin
Pancreatin describes the enzymatic product of the pancreas which
includes protein, carb, nucleic acid, and fat-digesting enzymes
Used to investigate the properties of pancreatic lipases which
hydrolyzes fats and oils to monoglycerides and fatty acids chain
What does Litmus blue test for and note the color change (same thing
as litmus cream??)
It is a pH indicator
When it changes from blue to pink, we know there is a presence of
fatty acids (i.e. fat digestion)
If it stays blue, no fat digestion has occured
Testing if emulsification has occurred in test tubes
If the oil is floating on the surface of the water, emulsification
has not occurred
If emulsification has occurred, the fat droplets will be suspended
throughout the water forming an emulsion
What conclusions can you draw when an experimental sample gives both
a positive starch test and a positive maltose test after incubation
The reaction has started but hasn't digested all of the starch
Why was 37 degrees C the optimal incubation temperature
It is the normal body temperature
In the activity measuring trypsin function, why was a special enzyme
assay (i.e. Benedict's or Lugol's IKE) to measure a product NOT necessary
Because cleavage of protein yields a dye
Would trypsin is a protease similar to pepsin, the protein digesting
enzyme in the stomach. Would trypsin work well in the stomach? Why or
why not?
Not because trypsin will break down because the pH is too acidic for it
Why did the litmus indicator change from blue to pink during
hydrolysis of the cream by the lipase
Because the breakdown of fats in the cream yielded fatty acids which
are acidic in nature which create the change in color from blue to pink
What is the name of the endocrine gland that lies on top of each kidney
adrenal gland
What three structures enter or exit the concave surface of the kidney
at the renal hilus
Renal artery, renal vein, and ureter
How many nephrons are there in each kidney
1,000,000
What is the major function of nephrons
make urine
What are the areas between the renal pyramids?
What are their functions
Called columns
Function: transport blood vessels and nerves
Function of renal pelvis
Collect urine
What is the renal corpuscle made of
Renal capsule and glomerulus
Does filtration allow both small and large molecules to pass through?
Onl small
What is the specific cell type that lines the proximal convoluted tubules
Simple cuboidal epithelium
What is the function of the tight junctions between adjacent cells in
the PCT
Prevent diffusion
What are the names of the cell types present in the juxtaglomerular
apparatus and what are they responsive too
Macula densa which are chemo receptors
Juxtaglomerular which are responsive to blood pressure
Path of forming urine starting at the glomerulus
Glomerular capsule, PCT, Descending loop of Henle, Ascending loop of
Henle, early DCT, Late DCT, Cortical collecting duct, Medullary
collecting duct
What is urochrome
It is a pigment metabolite arising from the body's destruction of
hemoglobin via bilirubin
It gives urine its pale yellow color
Odor of urine when fresh vs when left standing
Slightly aromatic when when fresh and ammonia-like odor when left standing
How does the urine of a person who has diabetes mellitus and elevated
levels of ketones smell like
Smells fruity like acetone
Average pH of urine
What causes the pH of urine to decrease (more acidic)
What causes the pH of urine to increase (more basic)
Average value is 6.0 which is slightly acidic
High protein and whole wheat increases acidity
Being vegetarian or having a bacterial infection
What is specific gravity
Relative weight of a specific volume of liquid compared with an equal
volume of distilled water
Causes urine with high specific gravity
Limited fluid intake, fever, kidney inflammation (aka pyelonephritis)
Causes of dilute urine
Person drinking an excessive amount of water, uses diuretics, or
suffers from diabetes insipidus or chronic renal failure.
What makes up urine in decreasing order of concentration
Water, urea, sodium, potassium, phosphate ions, sulfate ions,
creatinine, uric acid
Most important nitrogenous wastes found in urine
Urea, creatinine, uric acid
What is glycosuria and what can cause it
Presence of glucose in the urine
Indicates abnormally high blood sugar levels and can be causes by
uncontrolled diabetes mellitus
Normal glucose range
80-120 mg per 100mls of blood
What is albuminuria and what is the function of albumin
What can cause albuminuria
It is the presence of albumin in the urine
Its function is to maintain the osmotic pressure of the blood
Causes: excessive exertion, pregnancy, overabundant protein intake,
damamge to glomerular membrane via kidney trauma, ingestion of heavy
metals, bacterial toxins, glomerulonephritis, and hypertension
What is ketonuria and what can it cause
Presence of ketone bodies (normally present at very low concentrations)
It can cause acidosis
General diagnostic for diabetes mellitus
Ketonuria and glycosuria
What is hematuria and what can cause it
It is the appearance of RBCs in urine and indicates a pahtology of
the urinary tract
Can be causes by kidney stones, physical trauma
What is Hemoglobinuria and what can causes it
It is the presence of hemoglobin in the urine and it is a result of
fragmentation or hemolysis of RBCs
Can be due to hemolytic anemias, transfusion reactions, burns, or
renal disease
What is bilirubinuria and what can cause it
When bilirubin is found in the urine and can by signaled by a yellow
foam that forms when urine sample is shaken
It can be caused by hepatitis, cirrhosis
What is urobilinogen
A metabolite of bilirubin and it is found in small amounts in normal urine
What is pyuria and what can cause it
Presence of WBCs or pus constituents in the urine
Indicates inflammation of the urinary tract
What are casts?
What can cause a WBC cast, RBC cast, and Fatty casts?
Casts are hardened cell fragments which are flushed out of the
urinary tract
WBC cast: pyelonephritis
RBC cast: glomerulonephritis
Fatty cast: severe renal damage
What is a urinometer cylinder used for
Determines specific gravity
What do diastix reagent strips test for?
Test for glucose in urine
What do JustFitter pH test strips used for?
Reading the pH of the test
What are healthwiser reagent strips for ketones used for?
Test the presence of ketones in blood
What kind of organ is this
Kidney
What type of organ is this and label the boxes
Kidney
1. Glomerular capsule (bowman's capsule)
2. Glomerulus
3. Renal tubule
What type of organ is this and label the boxes
Ureter
1. Lumen
2. Transitional epithelium
3. smooth muscle
Not shown but adipose tissue surrounds it
Where does sperm production takes place and what is it called
Spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules
What is the male sex hormone and what produces it
Testosterone and it is produced by the interstitial cells (cells of leydig)
Function of epididymis
Monitors the fluids from the seminiferous tubules, recycles damaged
spermatozoa, stores and facilitates the maturation of sperm cells
3 accessory glands that secrete into the seminal fluid
1. seminal vesicles (fructose, prostaglandins, and clotting proteins)
2. Prostate gland (contains antibiotics and weakly acidic)
3. Bulbourethral glands (thick alkaline mucus)
What type of organ is this and label the boxes
Testis
1. Spermatozoa
2. Seminiferous tubules
3. Interstitial cells of leydrig
Where are the gametes produced in females and males
Females: ovaries
Males: Testes
What does the corpus luteum produce
Produces steroid hormones that help prepare and maintain the uterus
for pregnancy
What type of organ is this and label the boxes
Ovary
1. Corpus luteum
2. vesicular follicle
What type of solution is clear?
Biosalt solution