Name all the major organs in the respiratory system?
Nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinus, pharnyx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi/ and branches, lunges and alveoli
What is the function of the nose
Airway, warming air, filtering air, resonating speech, olfactory
What part of the nasal cavity contains smell recpetors?
olfactory mucosa
What bones in the paranasal sinus lighten the skull and help
warm/moisten the air?
Frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones
What are the three sections of the pharnyx?
Nasopharynx, Oropharynx, and Laryngopharynx
What is the function of the larynx?
Provides a patent airway, routes air and food into proper channels,
voice production
What and how control vocal cords?
Intrinsic muscles pull the corniculate and arytenoid cartilage
causing them to pivot
What is the final electron acceptor when making ATP?
Oxygen
Where is the esophagus and what is its function?
Back of the trachea; helps move food down to the stomach so that it
does not move to the trachea
What is the function of the epiglottis?
Folds over the larynx/ glottis so that food particles do not enter
the trachea
What determines pitch?
The length and tension of the vocal cords
What shapes sound into language?
Muscles of the pharynx, tongue, soft palate, and lips
Where does gas exchange occur?
Aveolar pores
What are the layers of the alveolar walls that allow rapid diffusion
of gases?
Type 1- epithelial cells that secrete angiotensin converting enzyme
Type 2- secrete surfactant
Which bronchus is wider, shorter, and more vertical?
The right main bronchus
Describe the conducting zone structures
Trachea-> right/ left main bronchi -> lobar bronchi (3 right, 2
left) -> segmental bronchi (divide repeatedly)
What does the respiratoy zone consist of?
bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli
What is the function of the alveoli pores?
Equalize air pressure throughout the lung and connect to adjacent alveoli
What are the 3 function of the pleura cavity and pleural fluid
Reduce friction Create pressure gradient
Compartmentalization
What is the difference between systemic and pulmonary circulation?
Systemic circulation is with high pressure and low volume
Pulmonary circulation is with low pressure and high volume
What are the three functions of the larynx?
Provides a patent airway Routes air and food into
proper channels Voice production
What opens the laryngopharynx?
The larynx which is attached to the hyoid bone
How do asthma attacks, allergies, and emphysema occur?
Parasympathetic chemicals (Ach binds to M3 muscarinic receptors to
cause smooth muscle contraction) -> smooth muscle contraction leads
to wheezing and difficulty breathing
What is the function of alveolar macrophages?
Clean debri and dirt that enters the lungs
What is the sequence of events for respiration?
1. Inspiratory muscles contract
2. Thoracic cavity volume increases
3. Lungs stretched; intrapulmonary volume increases
4. Intrapulmonary pressure drops to -1 mmHg
5. Air flows into lungs down its pressure gradient until
intrapulmonary pressure is 0
What occurs during quiet expiration?
inspiratory muscles relax Thoracic cavity volume
decreases elastic lungs recoil and Ppul
volume decreases Ppul rises
to 1mmHg
What muscles does forced expiration use?
Abdominal and internal intercostal muscles
For intrapulmonary pressure, during inspiration, pressure inside the
lung ______ as lung volume _____ .
Decreases, increases
For intrapulmonary pressure, during expiration, pressure _______.
Increases
In intrapleural pressure, pleural cavity pressure becomes more _____
as chest walls ______ during inspiration.
negative, expands
How many liters of air is moved into and out of the lungs during each breath?
0.5 liters of air
What physical factors influence pulmonary ventilation?
airway resistance alveolar surface tension
lung compliance
Gas flow changes _____ with resistance
inversely
What is the major nonelastic source of resistance to gas flow?
Friction
Where does resistance disappear?
At the terminal bronchioles where diffusion drives gas movement
In resistance, what is epinephrine responsible for?
dialation of bronchioles and reduction of air resistance
What would happen if severe constricting or obstruction of
bronchioles occurred?
prevents life sustaining ventilation can occur during
acute asthma attacks and stop ventilation
What causes infant respiratory distress syndrome?
Insufficient quantity of surfactant
What is surfactant?
detergent-like lipid and protein complex produced by type II
alveolar cells Reduces surface tension of alveolar fluid
and discourages alveolar collapse
The attraction of liquid molecules to one another at a liquid-gas interface
Surface tension
As alveoli radius decreases, surfactant's ability to lower surface
tension _____
increases
What is lung compliance?
A measure of the change in lung volume that occurs with a given
change in transpulmonary pressure
What causes lung compliance to be high?
distensibility of the lung tissue alveolar surface
tension
What causes compliance to be diminished?
nonelastic scar tissue reduced production of
surfactant decreased flexibility of the thoracic cage
What homeostatic imbalances reduce compliances?
deformities of thorax ossification of the costal
cartilage paralysis of intercostal muscles
Inspired air partial pressures
P 02 160 mm Hg Pco2
0.3 mm Hg
Blood leaving tissues and entering lungs
Po2 40 mm Hg Pco2 45mm Hg
Alveoli of lungs
Po2 104 mm Hg Pco2 40 mm Hg
Blood leaving lungs and entering tissue capillaries
Po2 100 mm Hg Pco2 40 mm Hg
Fetal hemoglobin
Has 2 gammas instead of 2 betas
What is oxyhemoglobin?
Normal heme contains iron int the reduced form
Fe2+ Fe2+ shares electrons and bonds
with oxygen
Deoxygemoglobin
when oxyhemoglobin dissociates to release oxygen, the heme iron is
still in the reduced form
Methemoglobin
Has iron in the oxidized form Fe3+ and lacks electrons
and cannot bind with O2
Carboxyhemoglobin
The reduced heme is combined with carbon monoxide (210 times stronger
that the bond with oxygen)
What is carbon dioxide transported as?
Dissolved gas Carbamino compounds Carbonic
acid
What percentage of CO2 is transported as dissolved gas?
7%
What is the carbamino compound equation and what percent of CO2
is transported this way?
CO2 + Hb ---> HbCO2
(CO2 + plasma protein ---> carbamino compounds)
23%
What is the carbonic acid equation and what percent of CO2
is transported this way?
CO2 + H2O (CAH)-->
H2CO3 ---> HCO3
- + H
70%
When does chloride shift occur?
Systemic circulation
When does reverse chloride shift occur?
Pulmonary circulation
What is an allosteric molecule?
Hemoglobin, it is able to change its shape
What causes the O2 disassociation curve to the right?
Increase in H+
What are the factors that affect OxyHgB dissociation?
Ambient pO2: at low pO2, HbO2 releases more
O2
Temperature: higher temp, more O2 release The
Bohr effect: drop in pH, more O2 release BPG: binds to HbO2
and causes release of O2
BPG is a by product of what?
Anaerobic fermentation
Anemia and O2 transport
RBC are triggered to produce greater amounts of 2,3 DPG
This causes increased release of oxygen
Can hemoglobin F bind to 2,3 DPG?
No, it has 2 gamma chains instead of 2 beta chains
What is the Haldane effect?
Reduced Hemoglobin transports more CO2
What acts as a buffer for blood pH?
Bicarbonate
What does hyperventilation cause?
CO2 levels to decline, known as hypocapnia
Infection in one or both lungs, mainly by bacteria and viruses
Pneumonia
Alveolar destruction resulting in air passages collapsing and
obstruction of outflow air; infections, toxins, smoking
Emphysema
Acidosis
increased levels of CO2 Hypoventilation
Alkalosis
increased O2 Hyperventilation
What do the neurons in the medulla oblongata and the pons control?
Unconscious breathing
What does the motor cortex provide?
Voluntary control
When do inspiratory neurons fire?
during inspiration
when do expiratory neurons fire?
during forced expiration
Which nerve travels to the diaphragm?
Phrenic nerve
Which nerves go to the intercostal muscles?
intercostal nerves
What is VRG?
Ventral respiratory group
contains rhythm generators whose output drives
respiration
What is DRG?
Dorsal respiratory group
integrates peripheral sensory input from stretch and
chemoreceptors and modifies the rhythms generated by the VRG
What is the responsibility of the pontine respiratory centers?
Influence and modify activity of VRG smooth out
transition between inspiration and expiration and vice versa
How is depth of breathing determined?
By how actively the respiratory center stimulates the respiratory muscles
How is breathing rate determined?
by how long the inspiratory center is active
What role does PCO2 play in chemoreceptors?
if PCO2 levels rise, CO2 accumulates in the brain CO2
is hydrated, carbonic acid dissociates, releasing H+ H+
stimulates the central chemoreceptors of the brainstem
What increases the depth and rate of breathing?
Chemoreceptors synapse with the respiratory regulatory centers
Where are peripheral chemoreceptors found and what do they sense?
Found in the aortic and carotid bodies and sense O2
What must occur in order to stimulate increased ventilation?
Substantial drops in arterial PO2
What is Hypoxemic hypoxia
O2 partial pressure is below normal
usually due to inadequate pulmonary gas exchange
What is ischemic hypoxia?
inadequate circulation
What is anemic hypoxia?
oxygen deprivation in the tissues caused by a decline in the bloods
ability to carry oxygen
What is histotoxic hypoxia?
metablic poison (cyanide)
what is cyanosis?
blueness of skin
during hypoxia, which organs are affected first?
organs with high metabolic demands
What occurs during oxygen toxicity?
pure O2 breathed at 2.5 atm or greater
generates free radicals and H2O2 destroys enzymes, damages
nervous tissue, seizures, coma and death
What was hyperbaric oxygen used for and why is it not used anymore?
Formerly used to treat premature infants, caused retinal damaged so
it was discontinued
What might a decreased pH mean?
CO2 retention accumulation of lactic acid
excess ketone bodies
How do respiratory system controls try to raise pH?
by increasing respiratory rate and depth
What do hypothalamic controls do?
act through the limbic system to modify rate and depth of respiration
What does a rise in body temperature do?
increases the respiratory rate
What do cortical controls do?
Direct signals from the cerebral motor cortex that bypass medullary controls
What is the Hering-Breuer Reflex?
Stretch receptors in the pleurae and airways are stimulated by
lung inflation inhibitory signals to the medullary
respiratory centers end inhalation and allow expiration to
occur
When does acute mountain sickness (AMS) occur and what are its symptoms?
Occurs when quick travel to altitudes above 8000 feet
symptoms include: headaches, shortness of breath, nausea and dizziness
Respiratory and hematopoietic adjustments to altitude
Acclimatization
When do chemoreceptors become more responsive to PCO2?
When PO2 declines
When are peripheral chemoreceptors stimulated?
when there is a substantial decline in PO2
What does a decline in blood O2 stimulate?
Stimulates the kidneys to accelerate production of EPO
What occurs during asthma and how many people are affected by this?
allergen triggers histamine release, intense bronchoconstriction
1 in 10 affected, mostly childred
What chemicals are brochodilators?
epinephrine and norepinephrine
What are the treatments for asthma?
anti histamines
coticosteroids
antileukotrines
anti-IgE antibodies
What is Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and what is it
shown by?
irreversible decrease in the ability to force air out of the
lungs asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema
What is tuberculosis, its symptoms and treatment?
infectious disease caused by the baterium Myobacterium
tuberculosis Fever, night sweats, weight loss, cough and
spitting up 12 month course of antibiotics
What are the 3 most common types of lung cancer?
squamous cell carcinoma adenocarcinoma small
(oat) cell carcinoma
How does gas exchange occur for fetuses?
via the placenta
When do respiratory centers activate, alveoli inflate and lungs begin
to function?
At birth
True or False: Respiratory rate is highest in newborns and slows
until adulthood
TRUE
Lungs continue to mature and more alveoli are formed until when?
young adulthood
When does respiratory efficiency decrease?
In old age
4 processes that supply the body with O2 and dispence of CO2
1. pulmonary ventilation: breathing - movement of air into and out of
the lungs2. external respiration: O2 & CO2 exchange between
the lungs and the blood3. Transport: O2 & CO2 in the
blood4. Internal Respiration: O2 & CO2 exchange between
systemic blood vessels and tissues
Broad range of functions of the respiratory system
O2 & CO2 gas exchange, speech and vocalization, sense of smell
(olfaction), elimination of CO2 helps control pH, synthesis of
angiotensin II helps regulate BP, helps create pressure gradients
between thorax and abdomen to promote lymph and venous blood flow, and
breath holding helps to expel abdominal contents during urination,
defecation, & childbirth (Valsalva maneuver - attempting to exhale
with nose and mouth closed so it creates pressure)
What is the respiratory zone and what are the microscopic structures?
site of gas exchange
structures: respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, & aleveoli
What is the conducting zone and what structures does it include?
conduits (channels or tubes) to gas exchange sites
structures include all other respiratory structures outside of
the respiratory zone structures.
What are respiratory muscles?
the diaphragm and other muscles that promote ventilation
What is the conducting division and what does it include?
passages serve only for airflow, nostrils to bronchiolesUpper
respiratory tract (URT): organs in the head & neck, nose through
larynx (voice box)Lower respiratory tract (LRT): organs of the
thorax, trachea through lungs
What is the airflow in lungs?
bronchi --> bronchioles --> alveoli
What is the respiratory division?
alveoli and distal gas exchange regions
What are the major organs of the respiratory system?
nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi and their branches, lungs and alveoli
What are the main respiratory functions of the nose?
providing an airway for respiration, moistening and warming the
entering air by high water content in cavity, filtering inspired air
and cleaning it of foreign matter, serving as a resonating chamber for
speech, and housing the olfactory receptors
What are the 2 regions of the nose?
1. external nose
2. nasal cavity
What structures are included in the external nose?
root, bridge dorsum nasi, and apex
-philtrum: a shallow vertical groove inferior to the apex (dip
between upper lip and center of nose)
-nostrils (nares): bounded laterally by the alae
What is included in the nasal cavity?
divided by a midline - nasal septum
posterior nasal apertures (choanae) open into the nasal pharynx
roof: ethmoid and sphenoid bones
floor: hard and soft palates
What is included in the nasal cavity?
vestibule - nasal cavity superior to the nares
(nostrils)-vibrissae: hairs that filter coarse particles from
inspired airolfactory mucosa - lines the superior nasal cavity
and contains smell receptors
What is respiratory mucosa?
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
Mucous and serous secretions contain what?
lysozyme and defensins
What is the function of cilia?
move contaminated mucous posteriorly to throat
What is inspired air warmed by specificially?
plexuses (networks) of capillaries and veins
What do sensory nerve endings trigger?
sneezing
What do the superior, middle and inferior nasal conchae do?
What do they do during exhalation?
increase mucosal area, enhance air turbulence, and filter, heat, and
moisten air
during exhalation, these structures reclaim heat and moisture
Where are the paranasal sinuses located and what is their function?
Located: frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones
Function: lighten the skull and help to warm and moisten the air
What is the pharynx?
Muscular tube that connects
1. nasal cavity and mouth superiorly
2. larynx and esophagus inferiorly
What is included in the nasopharynx?
Air passageway - posterior to the nasal cavitylining -
pseudostratified columnar epitheliumsoft palate and uvula -
close nasopharynx during swallowingpharyngeal tonsil (adenoids)
- on posterior wallpharyngotympanic (auditory) tubes - open into
the lateral walls
What is included in the oropharynx?
passageway for food and air from the level of the soft palate to the
epiglottislining of stratified squamous epitheliumisthmus
of the fauces - opening to the oral cavitypalatine tonsils in
the lateral walls of fauceslingual tonsil on the posterior
surface of the tongue
What is the Laryngopharynx?
passageway for food and airposterior to the upright
epiglottisextends to the larynx, where it is also continuous
with the esophagus
Where does the Larynx attach and what are it's 3 functions?
Attaches to the hyoid bone and opens into the
laryngopharynxcontinuous with the
tracheaFunctions:1. provides a patent airway2.
routes air and food into proper channels3. voice production
What are the cartilages of the larynx?
-Hyaline cartilage except for the epiglottisthyroid cartilage
with laryngeal prominence (Adam's apple)-ring-shaped cricoid
cartilagepaired arytenoid, cuneiform, & corniculate
cartilages--Epiglottis: elastic cartilage; covers the laryngeal
inlet during swallowing
What muscles control your vocal cords?
intrinsic muscles control vocal cords by puling the corniculate and
arytenoid cartilages causing them to pivot
Vocal Ligaments
Attach the arytenoid cartilages to the thyroid cartilageContain
elastic fibersForm core of vocal cords (true vocal
cords)-Opening between them is the glottis-folds vibrate
to produce sound as air rushes up from the lungs
Where are the vocal ligaments located?
larynx
What are the false vocal cords?
vestibular foldssuperior to the vocal folds (true vocal
cords)no part in sound productionhelp to close the glottis
during swallowing
What is involved in voice production?
Speech: intermittent release of expired air while opening and closing
the glottisPitch: determined by the length and tension of the
vocal cordsLoudness: depends upon the force of airChambers
of pharynx, oral, nasal, and sinus cavities amplify and enhance sound
qualitySound is "shaped" into language by muscles of
the pharynx, tongue, soft palate, and lips
How do vocal folds prevent air passage?
They may act as a sphincterex: Valsalva's
maneuver-glottis closes to prevent exhalation-abdominal
muscles contract-intra-abdominal pressure rises-helps to
empty the rectum or stabilizes the trunk during heavy lifting
Where is the windpipe located and what 3 layers is the wall composed of?
from the larynx into the mediastinum1. mucosa: ciliated
pseudostratified epithelium with goblet cells2. submucosa:
connective tissue with seromucous glands3. adventitia: outermost
layer made of connective tissue that encases 16-20 C-shaped rings of
hyaline cartilage
What are the 2 main structures of the trachea and what are their functions?
Trachealis muscle: connects posterior parts of cartilage ring;
contracts during coughing to expel mucusCarina: last tracheal
cartilage; point where trachea branches into two bronchi
Bronchi and subdivisions
Air passages undergo 23 orders of branchingBranching pattern
called the bronchial (respiratory) tree
Conducting Zone structures
Trachea --> right and left main (primary) bronchiEach main
bronchus enters the hilum of one lung-right main bronchus is
wider, shorter, and more vertical than the leftEach main
bronchus branches into lobar (secondary) bronchi (three right, two
left)-each lobar bronchus supplies one lobeEach lobar
bronchus branches into segmental (tertiary) bronchi-segmental
bronchi divide repeatedly
What is the diameter of bronchioles?
less that 1mm
What is the smallest type of bronchiole and what is their diameter?
terminal bronchioles - less than 0.5 mm
What structural changes occur from bronchi through bronchioles in the
conducting zone?
cartilage rings give way to plates; cartilage is absent from
bronchiolesepithelium changes from pseudostratified columnar to
cuboidal; cilia and goblet cells become sparserelative amount of
smooth muscle increases
What is the Respiratory zone and what does it consist of?
The site of gas exchange for O2 and CO2Consists of bronchioles,
alveolar ducts, and alveoli
What is the respiratory zone defined by and where/how does it begin?
the presence of alveoli; begins as terminal bronchioles feed into
respiratory bronchioles
Where do respiratory bronchioles lead to?
alveolar ducts, then to terminal clusters of alveolar sacs composed
of alveoli
approximately how many alveoli are there?
approx. 300 millionaccount for most of the lungs'
volumeprovide tremendous surface area for gas exchange
What causes wheezing and broncho-constriction in asthma, allergies
and emphysema?
inflammatory chemicals
What causes smooth muscle contraction in the parasympathetic nervous system?
acetylcholine binds to M3 muscarinic receptors
What is alveoli surrounded by?
fine elastic fibers
Alveoli contain open pores that have what 2 purposes?
1. connect adjacent alveoli2. allow air pressure throughout the
lung to be equalized
What are alveolar macrophages?
macrophages that keep alveolar surfaces sterile
What is the respiratory membrane also called?
air-blood barrier
What is the air-blood barrier (respiratory membrane) composed of?
alveolar and capillary wallstheir fused basal laminas
What are alveolar walls and what do they allow?
single layer of Type 1 epithelial cellspermit gas exchange by
simple diffusion
What do type 1 epithelial cells secrete?
angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)
What do type 2 epithelial cells secrete?
surfactant
Where do the lung occupy?
all of the thoracic cavity except the mediastinum (subdivision of
thoracic cavity containing the pericardial cavity)
What is the root of the lungs?
site of vascular and bronchial attachments
What is the costal surface?
anterior, lateral, and posterior surfaces in contact with the ribs
What is the base of the lungs?
inferior surface that rests on the diaphragm
What is the hilus of the lungs?
indentation that contains pulmonary and systemic blood vessels
Which lung is smaller? Left or right?
left lung is smaller
How many lobes is the left lung separated into?
2 lobes by an oblique fissure
How many lobes is the right lung separated into?
3 lobes separated by oblique and horizontal fissures
How many bronchopulmonary segments does each lunch have?
right lung has 10left lung has 8-9
What are lobules?
the smallest subdivisions; serves by bronchioles and their branches
What are the 3 functions of the pleura and pleural fluid?
1. reduction of friction2. creation of pressure
gradients3. compartmentalization
Is pulmonary circulation low or high pressure and volume?
low pressurehigh volume(inversely proportional - Boyle's Law)
What is the function of pulmonary arteries?
deliver system venous blood-branch profusely, along with
bronchi-feed into the pulmonary capillary networks
What is the function of pulmonary veins?
carry oxygenated blood from respiratory zones to the heart
Is system circulation high or low pressure and volume?
high pressurelow volume(inversely proportional - Boyle's Law)
What is the function of bronchial arteries?
provide oxygenated blood to lung tissue-arise from the aorta
and enter the lungs at the hilum-supply all lung tissue except
the alveoli
Bronchial veins anastomose (linked by anastomosis -
cross-connection/linkage) with what?
pulmonary veins
What carries most venous blood back to the heart?
pulmonary veins
What is the pleurae?
thin, double-layered serosaparietal pleura on thoracic wall and
superior face of diaphragmvisceral pleura on external lung
surfacepleural fluid fills the slitlike pleural
cavity-provides lubrication and surface tension
What does pulmonary ventilation consist of?
1. inspiration - gases flow into the lungs2. expiration - gases
exit the lungs
What is Boyle's Law?
the pressure of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to
its volume (assuming a constant temperature)
-If I increase volume I decrease pressure
What is Charles' Law?
The volume of a given quantity of gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature (assuming a constant pressure)
-heating air up causes the lung to expand
What is Dalton's Law?
The total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures of its individual gases
-If you add up all of the partial pressures you have 1 atmosphere
(equal to 760 mmHg)
What is Henry's Law?
At the air-water interface, the amount of gas that dissolves in water
is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure in
the air (assuming a constant temperature)
-oxygen and carbon dioxide are more easily dissolved than water
which is why we can exchange those gases
What are the partial pressure values for water, CO2, O2, N2, and
total pressure in inspired air?
H2O - VariableCO2 - 000.3 mmHgO2 - 159 mmHgN2 - 601
mmHgTotal pressure - 760 mmHg
What are the partial pressure values for H2O, CO2, O2, N2, and total
pressure in alveolar air?
H2O - 47 mmHgCO2 - 40 mmHgO2 - 105 mmHgN2 - 568
mmHgTotal Pressure - 760 mmHg
What is atmospheric pressure?
pressure exerted by the air surrounding the body760 mmHg (1
atm) at sea levelrespiratory pressures are described relative to
Patm
What is less than Patm?
Negative respiratory pressure (breathing in)
What is greater than Patm?
Positive respiratory pressure (breathing out)
What is equal to Patm?
Zero respiratory pressure
What is intrapulmonary pressure?
pressure in the alveolifluctuates with breathingalways
eventually equalizes with Patm -Ppul
What is intrapleural pressure?
-pippressure in the pleural cavityfluctuates
with breathingalways a negative pressure (<Patm
and <Ppul)
What is negative Pip causes by?
opposing forcestwo inward forces promote lung
collapseelastic recoil of lungs decreases lung sizesurface
tension of alveolar fluid reduces alveolar size
What outward force tends to enlarge the lungs?
elasticity of the chest wall pulls the thorax outward
What happens if Pip = Ppul?
The lungs collapse
What is transpulmonary pressure?
Ppul - Pip keeps the airways
openthe greater the transpulmonary pressure the larger the lungs
What is atelectasis?
lung collapse
What causes atelectasis?
plugged bronchioles --> collapse of alveoli (asthma)wound
that admits air into pleural cavity (pneumothorax - stab wound)
What muscles are used during inspiration?
sternocleidomastoidscalenesexternal
intercostalsdiaphragmpectoralis minor
True or False: Infants have small bladders and their kidneys can
concentrate urine?
False; small bladders, kidneys cannot concentrate urine, resulting in
frequent micturition
True or false: control of the voluntary urethral sphincter develops
with the nervous system
TRUE
E Coli accounts for what percent of all urinary tract infections?
80%
What keeps the urethra closed when urine is not being passed?
sphincters
What are the 2 sphincters of the urethra and where are they located?
internal urethral sphincter-involuntary, at the bladder-
urethra junction external urethral sphincter-voluntary
sphincter surrounding the urethra as it passes through the
urogenital diaphragm
What is the levator ani muscle?
muscle of pelvic floor also serves as a constrictor of the urethra
Voiding of urination
micturition
Micturition reflexes
stimulate the detrusor muscle to contract inhibit the
internal and external sphincters
What are the three layers of the bladder wall?
transitional epithelial mucosa A thick muscular
layer A fibrous adventitia
True or false: the bladder is distensible and collapses when empty
TRUE
What portion of the bladder do infections tend to occur in?
Trigone
Ureters have a trilayered wall, what does this consist of?
transitional epithelial mucosa smooth muscle
muscularis Fibrous connective tissue adventitia
True or false: Ureters propel urine to the bladder via response to
smooth muscle stretch
TRUE
Ureters carry urine from ____ to ____
Kidneys to bladder
Ureters enter the base of the bladder through the posterior or
anterior wall?
posterior wall
Urine is made up of ___% water and ___% solutes
95% water and 5% solutes
What are the nitrogenous wastes?
Urea
Uric acid
Creatinine
What are other normal solutes?
Potassium, sodium, phosphate, sulfate ions
calcium, magnesium and bicarbonate ions
What are the pH characteristics of urine?
slightly acidic (pH 6) with a range of 4.5-8.0 diet
can alter pH
What is the specific gravity (SG) range or urine and what is it
caused by?
1.001-1.035 dependent on solute concentration
*SG of water is 1.0
Where does urine get its odor from?
ammonia, some drugs and vegetables
Color Characteristics of Urine
clear pale to deep yellow due to urochrome
concentrated urine is deeper yellow drugs, vitamins,
supplements and diet can effect color cloudy urine may
indicate infection of the urinary tract
Renal Clearance equation
RC (GFR)= UV/P
U: concentration of the substance in urine
V: flow rate of urine formation
P: concentration of the same substance in plasma
GFR can be measured by injection of what?
Inulin, not metabolized or reabsorbed
What is renal clearance?
the volume of plasma that is cleared of a particular substance in a
given time
What are renal clearance tests used for?
determine the GFR detect glomerular damage
follow the progress of diagnosed renal disease
Heat needed to raise temperature of 1 kg H2O by 1�C
Specific heat
Glucose is used to make _____ for energy by cells
ATP
Excess glucose is converted to _______ and _______ and stored.
Glucose, Fat
The storage form of glucose is _______.
Glycogen
Where are 2 locations that glycogen is stored in the body?
Cells of liver and muscle.
It is recommended that _____% of your total caloric intake come from carbohydrates
45-65
What is the monomer(building block) for Carbohydrates?
Monosaccharides.
What are the 3 types of lipids?
Triglycerides, steroids, phospholipids.
Which type of lipids are not used for energy?
Steroids.
What are the 2 essential fatty acids?
Linoleic, alpha-linolenic acids.
What is a trans fat?
Unsaturated fatty acid.
What are the functions of the lipids in the body?
Help absorb fat-soluble vitamins Major fuel of
hepatocytes and skeletal muscle Phospholipids essential in
myelin sheaths and all cell membranes
What are the functions of the lipids in the body? 2
Adipose tissue -> protection, insulation, fuel storage
Prostaglandins -> smooth muscle contraction, BP control,
inflammation Cholesterol stabilizes membranes; precursor of
bile salts, steroid hormones
What are the functions of cholesterol in the body?
Hormone manufacturing, digestion, building blocks.
Fats - ___________% or less of total caloric intake
Saturated fats _________% or less of total fat intake
Cholesterol - no more than ________ mg/day
Fats - 30% or less
Saturated fats - 10% or less
Cholesterol - No more than 300
A good goal for blood cholesterol is to keep it below ________.
< 200 mg/dl
A diet high in __________ and __________ may cause cardiovascular disease.
cholesterol, saturated fats
What are some good sources of incomplete and complete proteins?
Quinoa and soybeans are complete proteins. Beans, nuts, legumes and
tofu are examples of incomplete proteins.
In regard to a positive nitrogen balance, ___________ exceeds _____________.
Synthesis exceeds breakdown.
Conditions associated with a positive nitrogen balance are:
Normal in children, pregnant women, tissue repair.
In regard to a negative nitrogen balance, ___________ exceeds___________.
Breakdown exceeds synthesis.
Conditions associated with a negative nitrogen balance are:
Stress, burns, infection, injury, poor dietary proteins, starvation.
Most vitamins function as ___________.
Coenzymes.
Most vitamins must be ingested except ________ which is produced in
the skin.
Vitamin D
Water soluble vitamins are absorbed with water. Which vitamins are
water soluble?
B complex and C are absorbed with water.
Vitamin B12 requires ___________ to be absorbed.
Intrinsic factor
Which vitamins are fat soluble?
A, D, E, and K absorbed with lipids
Which vitamins are stored in the body?
A, D, E
Broccoli, cauliflower, brussels sprouts good sources of vitamins
_______ and _______.
A and C
All the chemical reactions inside cells requiring nutrients is _________.
Metabolism.
________ is the synthesis of larger molecules from smaller ones.
Anabolism.
_________ is hydrolysis of complex structures to simpler ones.
Catabolism.
What is the goal of cellular respiration?
Catabolism of food fuels(glucose) -> capture of energy to form ATP
in cells
What 3 processes make up cellular respiration?
Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, oxidation phosphorylation (electron
transport chain and chemiosmosis)
______ -gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen atoms.
Oxidation.
__________ substances lose electrons and energy.
Oxidized.
_________ substances gain electrons and energy.
Reduced.
There are 2 mechanisms used in cellular respiration to produce ATP.
They are:
Substrate level phosphorylation and Oxidative phosphorylation.
Where does substrate level phosphorylation occur?
Cytosol in glycolysis or mitochondria in Krebs cycle.
Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur?
Mitochondria.
As ______ flows back through ______ membrane channel ->
energy used to phosphorylate ADP
Hydrogen, ATP synthase
Which of these processes produces the most ATP?
Substrate-level phosphorylation
Where does glycolysis occur?
Cystole
What molecule does glycolysis start with?
One molecule of glucose.
What are the first 5 steps of glycolysis called?
...
What are the products of Glycolysis?
�2 pyruvic acid (C3H4O3)
�2 NADH + H+ (reduced NAD+)
�Net gain of 2 ATP
Where does the Kreb's cycle occur?
Mitochondrial Matrix
What molecule enters Kreb's?
Acetal Co-A
For each glucose that starts glycolysis and enters the Kreb�s cycle:
1 glucose � 2 pyruvic acid molecules � two turns of Krebs cycle �
final products
�6 NADH + H+, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2, 2 ATP
1 glucose -> 2 pyruvic acid molecules -> two turns of Krebs
cycle -> final products
______ NADH + H+, ________ FADH2, ____
CO2, _______ ATP
6 NADH + H+, 2 FADH2, 4 CO2, 2 ATP
Products of each turn of Krebs cycle
______ NADH + H+, ________ FADH2, ____
CO2, _______ ATP
3 NADH + H+, 1 FADH2, 2 CO2, 1 ATP
Adding products of transitional phase( pyruvate processing), final products
_____ NADH + H+, _____ FADH2, ____
CO2, ____ ATP
8 NADH + H+, 2 FADH2, 6 CO2, 2 ATP
Complexes accept hydrogen atoms from ______ and ______ ->
NAD+ and FAD (for return to ________ and ________)
NADH + H+ and FADH2
Glysolysis and Krebs
Hydrogen atoms split -> ______ and ______
H+ and electrons
Electrons passed along chain to final electron acceptor � ____________
oxygen
____________________ pumped to intermembrane space by respiratory
enzyme complexes I, III, and IV
This creates an ________ gradient.
Hydrogen Ions
Electrochemical proton gradient
H+ diffuses back to matrix via ______
-> electrical current
ATP Synthase
The number of ATP produced by the electron transport chain is ________.
About 30 ATP
________ is the formation of glycogen which occurs in the
______________ and _____________. It occurs when glucose exceeds the
need for ATP production.
Gluconeogenesis, liver and cortex of kidneys.
________ is the breakdown of glycogen. It occurs in response to low
blood glucose levels.
Glyconeolysis
_________ is glucose formation in liver from glycerol and amino acids
when blood glucose levels drop
Gluconeogenesis
Lipids are broken down into _______ and ______.
...
Necessary for the complete oxidation of fat.
Oxaloacetic acid