Name the three structures of a blood vessel
Tunica interna Tunica media Tunica
externa
Why do arteries have thicker layers?
To withstand higher blood pressure as blood is sent through the body
from the aorta
What is the smallest type of blood vessel?
Capillaries
What makes up the capillaries structure?
thin tunica interna layer (only lets one RBC pass)
sparse basal lamina
What are vascular anastomosis?
A pathway of merging larger blood vessels by bypassing capillary network
What are arterial anastomoses?
Provides alternate pathways fro blood to reach body region
What are arteriovenous anastomoses?
connection of arterioles and venules
Name the three structural types of capillaries, how they differ, and
where they are locates
Continuous: Tight, not a lot of space for large molecules to
get through.... Location: fat muscle + nervous system
Fenestrated: Porous, rapid filtration... Location:
intestines Sinusoid: Big spaces to allow cells to pass; stem
cells that are being made into RBC can pass.. Location: Liver,
spleen, and bone marrow
Name the two types of arteries and where they are located
Elastic (conducting): thick walled near the heart
Muscular (distributing): deliver blood to body organs and
actively vasoconstrictor
What are is the function of a capillary bed?
microcirculation of capillary network that gives oxygen and nutrients
to the tissues
Name the two components of a capillary bed
Vascular shunts: connect arteriole directly to a post capillary
venule True capillaries: about 10-100 capillaries in a bed
that branch off the metarteriole
Oxygen rich ------> Oxygen poor
|
oxygen+ nutrients distributed
What are sphincters?
Smoothe muscle that vasoconstricts to lessen blood flow during
sympathetic situations; regulated by chemical concentrations
(ex: digestive system during a car accident)
What is perfusion and how is it regulated?
The process of the body delivering blood to the capillary bed in its
biological tissue
Regulated by the precapillary sphincter
What is the name of the pressure on the walls of the heart during contraction?
Normal value?
Systolic pressure
120 mmHg
What is the name of the lowest pressure during ventricular cycle?
Normal value?
Diastolic pressure
75 mmHg
What is pulse pressure?
Normal value?
The difference of systolic -diastolic
120mmHg - 75 mmHg= 45 mmHg
What is the pressure that propels the blood tot the tissue?
Mean arterial pressure
What is hypertension?
Condition of having elevated arterial pressure of 140/90 or higher
What are the three sources of resistance?
Blood viscosity (stickiness) Blood vessel length
(longer= more resistance) Blood vessel diameter (dilated/
constricted- law of fourth power)
What is the law of fourth power of radius?
F= r^4 mm/sec
F= blood flow
What controls resting heart rate?
Vagus nerve
what are the two main types of neural regulation?
Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors
What are baroreceptors? And where are they found?
Pressure sensitive... Found in the carotid sinus, ascending aorta,
and aortic arch
What are chemoreceptors? And where are they found?
Chemically sensitive.... Found in the carotid and aortic bodies
Name the three short- term hormonal regulators that increase blood pressure
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)= intense vasoconstriction for low BP
Angiotensin 2= kidneys release renin -> generates angiotensin 2
-> vasoconstrict
Prostaglandin-erived growth factor= vasoconstrict
Name the four short-term hormonal regulators that decrease blood pressure
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)= blood volume & pressure decrease
Nitric Oxide (NO)= Brief/ potent vasodilation
Inflammatory chemicals= histamine, prostacyclin (increase diameter
& decrease pressure)
Alcohol= BP drops by inhibiting ADH
How is blood pressure regulated for long-term?
BP is controlled by altering the blood volume
Baroreceptors adapt to chronic high/low BP to increase or decrease
blood volume ththough the kidneys
What are the conditions in which blood vessels are inadequately
filling and blood cannot circulate normally
Circulatory Shock
Hypovolemic shock
Circulatory Shock
Large-scale blood loss, blood volume decreases -> blood pressure decreases
Vascular Shock
Circulatory Shock
Poor circulation from extreme vasodilation; blood moving from
vessels to the tissue
Cardiogenic Shock
Circulatory Shock
Heart cannot sustain circulation
What is the lymphatic system?
Returns interstitial fluid and leaked plasma proteins back to the blood
What is the name of interstitial fluid that enters the lymphatic system?
Lymph
What are the three main components on the lymphatic system?
Lymphatic vessels Lymph Lymph nodes
State the chronological order of the lymphatic system to the blood
capillary system
lymph duct lymph trunk lymph node
lymphatic vessels lymphatic capillary blood
capillary
What is capillary hydrostatic pressure?
Forces fluid from blood capillaries into the tissue into the lymph
capillaries via endothelial cells that overlap forming minivalves
What are the three types of lymphoid cells?
Macrophage: phagocytize foreign substances; activate T
cells Dendritic cells: capture antigens and deliver them to
nodes Reticular cells: produce stroma that supports
lymphoid
What is the principal lymphoid organ of the body?
And what is it's function?
Lymph node
Filter lymph Immune system
Describe how a lymph node works
Enters through the afferent vessel Germinal centers
produce B cells that produce antibodies and attack unwelcomed
cells Leaves through the efferent vessel
Name the lymphoid organs
(superior to inferior)
Tonsils
Thymus
Spleen
Peyer's Patches
Appendix
Can any lymphoid organ filter lymph?
NO!!
ONLY LYMPH NODES FILTER LYMPH
What is the largest lymphoid organ of the body?
And its function?
Spleen
Cleanses the blood
Red pulp of the spleen
Splenic tissue that disposes worn out RBCs and blood borne pathogens
White pulp of the spleen
Lymphocytes that are involved in immune functions
Thymus function
Packed with lymphocytes and Hassall cells that communicate to T cells
how to mature
***Increases in size during childhood --> stops growing and
shrinks after childhood
Where are Peyer's Patches found? And what is their function?
Alines the intestinal tract
Produces cells that prevent infection in the intestines and
generates memory lymphocytes (also appendix)
MALT
Mucosa Associated Lymphatic Tissue
Protects the digestive and respiratory systems from foreign matter
Peyer's patches, tonsils, appendix, and lymphoid nodules in bronchi
Name all the different WBC and function
Neutrophils- phagocyte Eosinophils- parasitic
worms Basophils- release histamine for inflammation
Lymphocytes- antibodies and immune attack
Monocytes-
What is the first, second, and third line of defense?
First=Skin
Second= NK cells, fever, phagocytic, inflammation, antimicrobial
Third= Specific, Humoral (B cells) and Cellular (T cells)
What is the function of a macrophage?
Develops from a monocyte, phagocytes cells that shouldn't be there
and engulfs the bacterial cells
Walk through phagocytosis
Phagocyte binds to pathogen Phagocyte forms a
phagosome (pod form) Lysosome fuses with the phagosome
forming a phagolysosome Inside the pod the bacterial cells
are digested Removes material via exocytosis
What is the function of Natural Killing cells?
Destroy virus infected cells and cancer cells
Induce apoptosis- cell suicide
Name the cardinal signs for inflammation
heat swelling redness pain
Sometimes impairment of function
What is TLR and where are they found?
Toll-like Receptors
Specific to recognize bacterial cells and promote inflammation
Found on macrophages
What produces histamines?
Mast cells and basophiles
vasodilation and pro-inflammatory
Walk through the main stages of phagocyte mobilization
Leukocytosis= Neutrophils enter the blood from the bone
marrow Margination = neutrophils find its way to the blood
vessel wall Diapedesis= migrates from blood vessel to
tissue Chemotaxis= neutrophil follows chemical path to
bacteria Phagocytosis= neutrophil ingests bacterial cells and
enzymes are released to destroy the bacteria
What is LPF and what does it do?
Leukocytosis Promoting Factor
Goes into blood stream then bone marrow to produce more leukocytes
to replenish from inflammation process
Describe interferon process
Interferons is secreted by infected cells to communicate to
neighboring cells to produce proteins that will inhibit production of
viral DNA if infected
Virus enters cell Interferon gene switches on
Cell produces interferon molecules Interferon binding
stimulates cells to turn on gene for antiviral protein
Antiviral proteins block viral reproduction
Functions of interferons
Anti-viral
Reduce inflammation
Activate and mobilize NK cells
What type of pathway uses antibodies and C1,C2,and
C4,antigen-antibody complex
Classical Pathway
What type of pathway uses C3, B,D, and P to interact on the surface
of a microorganism
Alternative Pathway
PAMP
Pathogen Associated Molecular Pattern (recognizes bacterial invaders)
Lipopolysacchride and Peptidoglycan
Describe C3 compliment protein, what it splits into and what it is
used for
C3a= stimulates mast cells and basophils for inflammation
C3b=Activates C5b and C9 to bind to enemy membrane to create a hole
--> cytolysis
C3b= Coats bacterial surface to be attacked by neutrophils --> Opsonization
What produced CRP and what is it used for?
Produced by the liver in response to inflammation
Is a non-specific clinical marker for acute infection
Activates C= enhances opsonization
What are pyrogens?
Stimulate fever, increases body temperature
Benefits of fever
Liver and spleen keep iron and zinc, which bacterial cells need (aka
it kills cells)
Describe the course of a fever
infection and pyrogen secretion Hypothalamic
thermostat is set to higher set point Onset= Body temp
rises Stadium=body temp oscillates around high temp
Infection ends, set point returns to normal Body temp
returns to normal
What is a hapten?
Incomplete antigen that cannot respond alone, but when bonded can
have a B cell response
What is IL-1 and what secretes it?
Phagocytosis stimulates secretion of IL-1 (if more sick--> more IL-1)
stimulates hypothalamus to secrete PGE
What is PGE?
Raises hypothalamus set point of the body
More PGE= higher temp
Antipyretics inhibit PGE synthesis
What are the characteristics of adaptive immunity?
Specific, Systemic, Memory
Humoral and Cellular (B cells and T cells)
What are antigens?
substances that mobilize the adaptive defenses and provoke immune response
MOST are nonself
What is an epitope?
An antibody binding site on an antigen
True/ false
B cells can produce many types of antibodies?
False
They can only produce 1 type of antibody
What is the function of a B cell?
Fight microbial infections by secreting antibodies into blood and lymph
What do B cells from when they divide?
Memory cells- which replenish germinal center for future infection
How do B cells produce antibodies?
B cells convert to plasma cells to produce antibodies that are
specific for an antigen (provides active immunity)
IgG
More abundant immunoglobulin (antigen)
Hemolytic disease (RH fetal disease)
IgA
secretory antibody from mom to baby for protection
IgE
Binds to mast cells and basophils to create inflammation
Allergy sensitivity
IgM
Blood typing
IgD
Antigen receptor on lymphocyte
Describe Clonal Selection of B cells
When your body is introduced to a knew infection that your body has
not seen before, the virus flows through the lymphatic system so
B-cell recognizes the virus and stimulates mitosis to replicate the
B-cells and plasma cells in which secretes antibodies for the infection.
Memory cells are also produced
What are APCs? What are the three major APCs?
Antigen Presenting Cells
Dendritic cells, macrophages, and activated B cells
What does MHC stand for?
What is MHC?
Major Histocompatibility Complex
Proteins that hold the fragment of the antigens that are used for
self/ non-self recognition
What cells have MHC 1 present?
What is it a marker for?
All cells have MHC 1 besides RBC (because they do not have a nucleus)
Killer T cells
What cells have MHC 2 present?
What is it a marker for?
Immune cells (*** Immune cells will have both MHC 1and MHC2)
Helper T cells
What type of cell is known as the "Master Conductor"?
T-helper cells
Doesn't kill, but tells other cells what to kill
Activates APCs and T killer cells, and stimulate B cells
What is needed to produce Cytotoxic T cells?
CD8
What is needed to produce Helper T cells?
CD4
How does a Helper T cells recognize an antigen?
It uses the CD4 to scan the MHC to see if the foreign antigen is present
How does a Killer T cell recognize to kill a cell?
If MCH1 is present on the cell
What are the two types of acquired immunity?
Naturally and Artificially
Define the active and passive functions within naturally acquired immunity
*What is naturally acquired immunity?
Active: Infection; contact with pathogens
Passive: Antibodies pass from mother to fetus via placenta
* response to a bacterial or viral infection
Define the active and passive functions within artificially acquired immunity
*What is artificially acquired immunity?
Active: Vaccine
Passive: Injection of immune serum
*response to vaccine of dead or attenuated pathogen
What are autoimmune diseases?
Failure of immune system to recognize and tolerate self-antigens
Antibodies are destroying platelets - bleed easily because clotting
cant happen
Hashimoto's Thyroiditis
antibodies are stimulated to attack thyroglobulin
What is the autoimmune disease in which autoantibodies against lens
protein in damaged eyes
Sympathetic Opthalmia
Thrombocytopenia
Low platelet count platelets are destroyed because they combine with
victim's medications
Rheumatoid arthritis
Antibodies produced are directed against other antibodies
Abnormal IgM attacks IgG
What autoimmune disease in which antibodies against foreign antigens
cross-reacting with self-antigens
Rheumatic Fever
What happens in Type 1 diabetes?
self antigens being presented to helper T cells together with MHC2
What are Immune Complex Diseases?
What are two diseases this is seen in?
Formation of immune antigen-antibody complexes that are free and not
attached to a cell, which activates complement proteins and promote inflammation
Rheumatoid Arthritis & Systemic lupus erythematous
What is Rheumatoid arthritis?
inflammation of the joints which leads to destruction of cartilage
and bone
What is systemic lupus erythematous?
IgG auto antibodies produce against own chromatin
What are allergies (hypersensitivity)?
Abnormal immune response to allergens
What are the two forms of allergies and describe them?
Immediate: abnormal B cells response to allergens; can cause effects
in minutes (Anaphylactic shock) dendritic cells secrete interleukin 4
& 13
Delayed: abnormal T cells response that causes symptoms 24-72 hours
later; secrete lymphokines
How are histamines helpful in terms of allergies?
It stimulates the smooth muscle contraction in respiratory passages
What does HIV do to the cells within the immune system?
Destroys helper T cells
What is SCID?
Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Syndrome
Defective adenosine deaminase
What is Anastomosis and what are the circulatory routes?
The merging of larger blood vessels
Arteriovenous: connection of arterioles and venules
Arterial: provide alternate pathways for blood to reach body regions
What are veins and arteries made up of?
1. Tunica Interna (endothelial layer)
2. Tunica Media (smooth muscle and elastic fiber)
3. Tunica Externa (collagen fibers)
Which blood vessels are thicker and why?
Arteries because they can withstand more blood pressure to pump blood
throughout the body
What are the three major types of blood vessels and their functions?
1. Veins: carry blood to the heart
2. Arteries: carry blood away from the heart
3. Capillaries: contact tissue cells and directly serve cellular needs
What are capillary beds?
Microcirculation of capillary networks containing vascular shunts and
true capillaries
Which type of arteries are thick walled, near the heart and contain
elastin in all three tunics?
Elastic (conducting) arteries
Which type of arteries deliver blood to body organs and are active in vasoconstriction?
Muscular (distributing) Arteries
What are precapillary sphincters and what are they responsible for?
Cuff of smooth muscle that surrounds each true capillary
Responsible for regulating blood flow into the capillary through
vasomotor nerves and local chemical conditions
What is perfusion?
The process of the body delivering blood to a capillary bed in its
biological tissue
What are the 3 types of capillaries?
1. Continuous
2. Fenestrated
3. Sinusoidal
What do continuous capillaries do and where are they found?
provide an uninterrupted lining, connect cells with tight junctions,
and allow fluid passage
Found in the skin and muscles
What do fenestrated capillaries do and where are they found?
covered in pores, found in the kidneys where capillary absorption and
filtrate formation occurs
What do sinusoidal capillaries do and where are they found?
allow large molecules to pass through, has large lumens, found in
liver, bone marrow and lymphoid tissue
What is systolic pressure?
Pressure exerted on arterial walls during ventricular contraction
Ex: 120 mm Hg
What is pulse pressure?
The difference between systolic and diastolic pressure
Ex: 45 mmHg
What is mean arterial pressure and how do you calculate it?
Pressure that propels the blood to the tissues
MAP= diastolic pressure + 1/3 pulse pressure
What are the short term hormonal/chemicals that increase blood pressure?
1. Adrenal medulla hormones- norepinephrine and epinephrine
2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
3. Angiotensin II
4. Endothelium derived factors
What chemical decrease blood pressure?
1. Atrial natriuretic peptide
2. Nitric Oxide
3. inflammatory chemicals
4. Alcohol
Small diameter means ______ resistance and large diameter means _____ resistance.
smaller diameter means more resistance and large diameter means less resistance
Low blood pressure in which systolic pressure is below 100 mm Hg
Hypotension
Condition of sustained elevated arterial pressure of 140/90 or higher
What is circulatory shock?
any condition in which blood vessels are inadequately filled and
blood cannot circulate normally
Type of circulatory shock that results from large scale blood loss
Hypovolemic shock
Type of circulatory shock that causes poor circulation resulting from
extreme vasodialation
Type of circulatory shock where the heart cannot sustain adequate circulation
Cardiogenic shock
What disease occurs when blood supply to the tissue is deficient?
Ischemia heart disease
What is the vasomotor center responsible for?
changes blood vessel diameter to regulate blood pressure
What is cardiac output determined by?
venous return and neural and hormonal controls
Flow rate
Flow rate = radius4
What hormones does hormonal regulation consist of?
1. Antidiuretic hormone
2. Angiotensin II
3. Prostaglandin derived growth factor
Neural regulation is determined by what?
Baroreceptors- pressure sensitive
Chemoreceptors- chemical sensitive
What does the lymphatic system consist of?
1. a network of lymphatic vessels
2. Lymph
3. Lymph nodes
What is hydrostatic pressure
when fluid if forced from blood capillaries into tissue; tissue fluid
is pushed into the lymph capillaries
What are lymph nodes and what is their function?
principial lymphoid organs of the body embedded in connective
tissure, near the body surface
Functions: filter lymph and immune system
What does the structure of a lymph node consist of?
1. cortex: follicles with germinal centers
2. dendritic cells: encapsulate follicles
3. deep cortex: t cells in transit
4. medullary cords: contains b cells, t cells and plasma cells
5. lymph sinuses: contain macrophages
What is the circulation process in the lymph nodes?
lymph enters via afferent lymphatic vessels Travels
through large subscapular sinus and smaller sinuses exits
node at the hilus via efferent vessels
What is the structure of the spleen around the central arteries,
mostly lymphocytes and involved in immune functions?
White Pulp
What is the remaining splenic tissue concerned with disposing of worn
out RBCs and bloodborne pathogens?
Red pulp
What is the thymus responsible for?
T lymphocyte maturation does not directly fight
antigens
What are the tonsils role in the lymphatic system?
contain follicles with germinal centers contains
crypts that trap and destroy bacteria
What is Peyer's patches?
Clusters of lymphoid follicles destroy bacteria
preventing them from breaching the intestinal wall
What cells are granulocytes made up of and what are each responsible for?
neutrophils-phagocytize bacteria eosinophils- kill
parasitic worms basophils- release histamine, contains
heparin
What cells are agranulocytes made up of and what are they responsible for?
Lymphocyte- immune response by direct cell to cell contact or
via antibodies monocyte- phagocytic, develops into
macrophages
Which type of defense is non-specific and is responsible for
inflammation and what line(s) of defense does it contain?
Innate defense consists of first and second line of defense
What is the innate defense made up of?
skin mucous membranes phagocytes NK
cells inflammation antimicrobial proteins
fever
What type of defense is specific and requires antibodies what line(s)
does it consist of?
Adaptive defense, consists of the third line of defense
What is the adaptive defense made up of?
Humoral immunity- B cells Cellular immunity- T
cells
What are natural killer cells? (NK Cells)
Virus-infected cancer cells
What are NK cells responsible for?
Induce apoptosis in cancer cells and virus infected cells
secrete potent chemicals that enhance inflammatory response
What types of cells are phagocytes and what do they do?
macrophages are scavengers neutrophils become
phagocytic when encountering infectious material
What are the cardinal signs of inflammation?
redness heat swelling pain
impairment of function
What is the purpose for Toll-like receptors? (TLR's)
recognize specific classes of infecting microbes and trigger cytokine
release which promotes inflammation
What produces histamine and what does it do?
comes from mast cells and basophils and cause vasodialation
What are the 4 main phases of phagocyte mobilization?
1. Leukocytosis
2. Margination
3. Diapedesis
4. Chemotaxis
What phase occurs when neutrophils are released from the bone marrow
in response to leukocytosis inducing factors released by injured cells?
Leukocytosis
What phase occurs when neutrophils cling to the walls of capillaries?
Margination
What phase occurs when neutrophils squeeze through capillary walls
and begin phagocytosis?
Diapedesis
What phase occurs when inflammatory chemicals attract neutrophils to
the injury site?
Chemotaxis
What are the 2 types of antimicrobial proteins and what do they do?
interferons complement proteins attack
microorganisms and hinder their ability to reproduce
What type of interferons do lymphocytes produce?
Gamma or immune interferons
What type of interferons do most WBC's produce?
Alpha interferons
Beta interferons are produced by what cell?
Fibroblasts
What are the functions of interferons?
anti viral reduce inflammation activate
macrophages and mobilize NK cells
What factors do complement proteins consist of?
C1-C9, B,D and P and regulatory proteins
What are the two complement activation pathways and which requires antibodies?
Classical- requires antibodies Alternative