pulmonary circuit
deoxygenated blood from body to lungs to pick up oxygen (generally blue)
systemic circuit
oxygenated blood to body then back to heart (generally red)
structure of heart
hollow, cone shaped, muscular pump
2 ventricles and 2 atria
average size of heart
14 cm long
9 cm wide
location of heart
posterior to sternum
medial to lungs
base lies beneath 2nd rib
apex at 5th intercostal space
3 layers of the pericardium
outer fibrous pericardium
visceral pericardium
parietal pericardium
pericarditis
inflammation of the membrane surrounding the heart
myocardium
cardiac muscle
right atrium
receives blood from inferior and superior vena cava and coronary sinus
right ventricle
receives blood from right atrium
left atrium
receives blood from pulmonary veins
left ventricle
receives blood from left atrium
mitral valve prolapse
stretching and bulging of valve during ventricular contraction
skeleton of heart
fibrous rings to which the heart valves are attached - provides firm
attachment of valves and muscle fibers
atrial systole/ventricular diastole
atria contract together
blood flows passively into ventricles
A-V valves open/semilunar valves close
atrial diastole/ventricular systole
ventricles contract together
A-V valves close
chordae tendinaea prevents valve cusps from bulging into atria
lubb
1st sound of heart
occurs during ventricular systole
A-V valves closing
dupp
2nd sound of heart
occurs during ventricular diastole
pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves closing
murmur
abnormal heart sound
caused by improper closure of valves
endocarditis
causes erosion of valve edges
synctium
group of cells that function as a unit
ex. atrial synctium & ventricular synctium
S-A node
pacemaker
electrocardiogram
recording of electrical charges in the myocardium
assesses heart ability to conduct impulses
p wave
atrial depolarization
QRS wave
ventricular depolarization
T wave
ventricular repolarization
ventricular fibrillation
rapid uncoordinated depolarization of ventricles
atrial flutter
rapid rate of atrial depolarization
medulla oblangata
controls cardiac conduction system and slows it down
factors that influence HR
exercise
body temp
ion concentration of potassium and calcium
cerebrum or hypothalamus
can alter HR when anxious or upset or when a person faints
arteries
carry blood away from ventricles of heart - thick walled
arterieoles
receive blood from arteries and carry blood to capillaries - thin walled
capillaries
sites of exchange of substances between blood and body cells - semipermeable
venules
receive blood from capillaries
veins
carry blood toward ventricle of heart
thinner wall than artery - some have flaplike valaes
precapillary sphincters
may close capillary
respond to cellular needs
low oxygen and nutrients- sphincter relaxes
metarterioles
branches from arterioles - blood bypasses capillaries
exchange in the capillaries
net outward at arteriolar end
net inward at venular end
venous blood flow
dependent on: skeletal muscle contraction
breathing
venoconstriction
valve
carotid artery
where you listen to pulse
blood pressure
force the blood exerts against the inner walls of the blood vessels
pulse
alternate expanding and recoiling of the arterial wall that can be felt
central venous pressure
pressure in right atrium
factors influence it and alter flow into right atrium
lymphatic system
network of vessels that assist in circulating fluids
closely associated with the cardiovascular system
lymphatic capillaries
microscopic
closed-ended tubes
in interstitial spaces most of the time
simple squamous epithelium
lymphatic vessels
walls are similar to veins but thinner
larger vessels lead to lymph nodes and then to larger lymphatic trunks
lymphatic trunks
drain lymph from the lymphatic vessels
named for the regions they serve
lymph
tissue fluid that has entered a lymphatic capillary
lymph formation
dependent on tissue fluid formation
right lymphatic duct
drains lymph from the upper right side of the body
thoracic duct
drains lymph from the rest of the body
lymph nodules
dividing lymphocytes and macrophages
tissue fluid
originates from plasma
contains water and dissolved substances
contains smaller proteins which create colloid osmotic pressure
lymph formation
increasing hydrostatic pressure within interstitial spaces forces
tissue fluid into lymphatic capillaries
lymph movement
action of skeletal muscles
respiratory movements
functions of lymph nodes
filter potentially harmful particles from lymph
immune surveillance
thymus
small in an adult
site of T lymphocyte production
secretes thymosins
spleen
largest lymphatic organ
sinuses filled with blood
contains WBCs and RBCs
pathogen
disease causing agent
bacteria, viruses
innate defenses (nonspecific)
general defenses
protects against many pathogens
adaptive defenses (specific)
immunity
carried out by lymphocytes
inflammation
redness, swelling, heat, pain, pus
species resistance
a species may resist an infection because it lacks enviroments needed
by pathogen
mechanical barriers
prevent entrance of infectious agents
first line of defense
chemical barriers
enzymes in body fluids
second line of defense
natural killer cells
small group of lymphocytes
defend against viruses & cancer cells
enhances inflammation
phagocytosis
neutrophils, monocytes
blood vessels, liver, spleen, bone marrow
fever
stimulates production of interleukin
T cells
attack antigen bearing cells
secrete cytokines
secrete toxins that kill cells
secrete growth inhibiting factors
B cells
differentiate into plasma cells
produce antibodies
humoral immune response
antigens
proteins, polysaccharides, glycoproteins
most effective are large and complex
adaptive defenses
ability to distinguish self from non-self
helper t cell
activates B cells to produce antibodies
cytotoxic T cell
recognizes cancerous antigens
memory T cell
respond at a later date to same antigen
antibody molecules
immunoglobins
4 chains of amino acids
forms Y shape
IgG
bacteria, viruses, toxins
IgA
bacteria, viruses
IgM
foods, bacteria
IgD
helps activate B cells
IgE
exocrine secretions, allergic reactions
antibody attack directly
combine with antigen - cause agglutination - then macrophage eats antigen
antibody activate compliment
IgG & IgM form antigen complex
triggers compliment protein production
antibody promote inflammation
IgE
stimulates mast cells to produce histamines
vaccine
may be bacteria, viruses that are killed or weakened, a chemically
altered toxin, or a glycoprotein to stimulate antigen response
primary immune response
B cells and T cells- activated with initial encounter
IgM & IgG releases - destroys antigen bearing agent
secondary immune response
memory cells proliferate w/ subsequent infection
long lasting immunity
type 1 allergic reaction
immediate reaction
occurs minutes after contact
hives, hay fever, asthma, eczema
allergic reactions
immune attacks against non harmful substances that can damage tissues
type 2
antibody-dependent cytotoxic reaction
takes 1-3 hours to develop
transfusion reaction
type 3
immune-complex reaction
takes 1-3 hours to develop
damage of body tissues
type 4
delayed reaction allergy
results from repeated exposure
takes about 48 hours to occur
autoimmunity
inability to distinguish self from non self
ex. rheumatoid arthritis & graves disease
AIDS
can remain dormant for 8-10 years
first reported 1981
initial tests can be negative for up to a year
spread of HIV
blood, semen, vaginal fluids
AZT
inhibit enzymes necessary for DNA production from RNA
hodgkin disease
malignant lymphoma
non-hodgkin lymphoma
absence of reed-sternberg cells
infectious mononucleosis
epstein barr virus
infects b lymphocytes
Rheumatic fever
Inflammatory disease caused by the immune response to a certain class
of streptococcal bacteria
Angina pectoris
When oxygen demands exceed supply
Mitral Valve Prolapse
1 or both cusps of mitral valve protrude into left atrium during
ventr. contractions
Hypertension
Persistent elevated arterial pressure
Myocardial Infarction
heart attack
Atherosclerosis
Fatty plaque (esp. cholesterol) obstructs coronary blood vessels
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)
Poor coronary blood flow reduces nutrients and oxygen to heart
Functions of Digestive System
ingestion mechanical digestion chemical digestion propulsion
Movements of the Tube
mixing movements peristalsis
submucosal plexus
controls secretions by GI tract
myenteric plexus
in muscle layer-controls GI motility
mouth
prepares food for chemical digestion
Palate
roof of oral cavity
Primary Teeth
20 DeciduousErupt 6mts to 4 yrs 8 incisors4
cuspids8 molars
Parotid glands
clear water, serous fluid rich in salivary amylase
Submandibular glands
primarily serous fluid some mucus
Sublingual glands
primarily mucus most viscous
Hiatal hernia
portion of stomach protrudes through weakened esophageal hiatus and
into thorax
pepsinogen
from chief cells inactive form of pepsin
pepsin
from pepsinogen in presence of HCl protein splitting enzyme
hydrochloric acid
from parietal cells needed to convert pepsinogen to pepsin
mucus
from goblet cells and mucous glands protective to stomach wall
Cephalic phase
triggered by smell, taste, sight, or thought of food
parasympathetic impulses trigger gastric juice secretion
Gastric phase
triggered by presence of food in stomach gastrin released
gastric juice secreted
Intestinal phase
triggered by movement of food into small intestine intestinal
cells release intestinal gastrin slow secretion of gastric juice
Gastric Absorption
some water certain salts certain lipid-soluble
drugs alcohol
enterogastric reflex
regulates the rate at which chyme leaves the stomach
Pancreatic duct
transports pancreatic juices to small intestine
hepatopancreatic ampulla
pancreatic & bile duct join
hepatopancreatic sphincter
Band of smooth muscle surrounds ampulla
Acute Pancreatitis
blockage of release of pancreatic juicesTrypsin builds
upDigests part of the pancreas
Cystic Fibrosis
Recessive Genetic disorderMucus buildup blocks pancreatic secretions
Falciform ligament
separates lobes & attaches liver to abdominal wall
Coronary ligament
attaches liver to diaphragm
Lobule
hepatic cells radiated from a central vein
Jaundice
yellowish skin, sclerae, and mucous membranes � bile pigments
Obstructive jaundice
blocked bile ducts � gallstones or tumors
Hepatocellular jaundice
liver disease � cirrhosis or hepatitis
Hemolytic jaundice
RBC�s destroyed too rapidly � improper blood transfusion or
infections s/a malaria
hepatitis
inflammation of the liver - viral
gallbladder
Stores bile between mealsConcentrates bile by reabsorbing
waterContracts to release bile into duodenum
Regulation of Bile Release
fatty chyme entering duodenum stimulate gallbladder to release bile
Three Parts of Small Intestine
DuodenumJejunumIleum
mesentery
folds of peritoneum that suspend s.i. in abdominal wall
Greater Omentum
double fold of peritoneal membrane
peptidase
breaks down peptides into amino acids
lipase
breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol
absorption in the small intestine- electrolytes and water
through diffusion, osmosis, and active transport absorbed into blood
Absorption in the Small Intestine- fatty acids and glycerol
several steps absorbed into lymph and bloodlacteals
Celiac Disease
Inability to digest gluten � wheat, rye
Diverticulosis
Outward pouches form in small intestine
Movements of Large Intestine
slower and less frequent than those of small
intestineperistalsis � different. Happen only 1 to 2 times per day
Ulcerative colitis
inflammation of large intestineBloody diarrhea and cramps that
last for weeks
Crohn Disease
Diarrhea, cramps, but not bloody and cancer not common
Nutrient
chemical substance supplied by environment required for survival
Molecules
WaterOxygenCarbon dioxide
Vitamins
organic compounds
Vitamin A
retinol, carotenes; bone, teeth, epith dev
Vitamin D
gp of steroids; promote Ca & P absorption; bone, teeth dev
Vitamin E
antioxidant
Vitamin K
required for synthesis of prothrombin (blood clotting)
Vitamin B complex
essential for cell metabolism
Vitamin C
collagen
Respiration
exchanging gases b/t atmosphere & body cells
Goblet cells
produce mucus that traps foreign materials
Cilia
beat to remove mucus
Cells in Respiratory Tract
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Sinuses
Air-filled spaces in maxillary, frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones
pharynx
passageway for food and air
posterior to oral cavity
aids in speech
Larynx
Passageway for airPrevents foreign objects from entering
tracheaHouses vocal cords
Thyroid cartilage
covers thyroid �Adams apple�
Cricoid cartilage
lowermost point of cartilage
Epiglottic cartilage
supports epiglottis allows air into trachea closes � when
swallowing food
Cuneiform & cornifulate cartilage
Regulate tensionMuscle attachments
True vocal cords
Vibrations create sound waves w/ aid of tongue and lips
Glottis
Opening b/t vocal cords during normal breathingCloses when food swallowed
Trachea
Windpipe�Anterior to esophagusSplits into rt. & lft bronchi
Tracheostomy
Performed to allow air to bypass an obstruction within the larynx
Bronchoscope
flexible optical instrument
Bronchoscopy
Examine trachea and bronchial tree
Alveoli
Simple squamous epitheliumClosely associated w/ dense network
of capillariesGas exchange
Boyle�s Law
Pressure and volume are related in an opposite or inverse way.
Surfactant
Polypeptide that aids in expansion of alveoliContinually secreted
Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS)
premature infants Lungs too immature to produce sufficient surfactant
expiration
due to elastic recoil of the lung tissues and abdominal
organsPassive process � does not require muscle activity
inspiration
Atmospheric pressure forces air into the airways
Tidal volume
volume of air during 1 cycleResting tidal volume � about 500 mL
Respiratory Membrane
Type II cells � secrete surfactantType I cells � simple
squamous epithelium Dense network of capillaries