Electromagnetic spectrum
Raging (longest wave length)
Martins
Invaded
(ROYGBIV)
Using
X-ray
Guns (shortest wave length)
Aufbau
lowest energy fills first
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
Pauli exclusion
no two electrons can have the same 4 numbers
Hunds rule
dont pair up electrons until you have too
n
principle quantum number
-size
-n=row on table
l
azimuthal number
-shape of orbital
-(n-1)
m
magnetic quantum number
-orientation of the particle in space
-includes 0
-number of orbitals possible
spin quantum number
tells about the spin of the electron
(paul?i exclusion principle)
d block
f block
d block= 1 number less
f block= 2 number less
d block valence electrons
count d and s shell
what are the electron configuration exceptions
chromium (cr) group and copper (cu) group
even numbers=
diamagnetic (exceptions are 10,16)
odd numbers
paramagnetic
unpaired
ionic bonds have _____ mp, ______ bp, brittle, hard
high high
what is lattice energy
energy required to separate an ionic compound cations from its anions
lattice energy formula
(charges)/bond distance
-greater charge = greater lattice energy
-shorter bond distance= greater lattice energy
Which of the following has the largest lattice energy
Li-F
Li-Cl
Li-Br
Li-I
Li-F
since it has the smallest size distance
due to F being a smaller atom compared to the others
metalloids
is gas compressible
yes
conforms to volume and shape
simple unit cell atoms
1
body centered unit cell atoms
2
face centered unit cell atoms
4
amorphous solid
no ordered 3D arrangement
alkali metals have ________ ionization energy thus have high _________
low ionization energy
high reactivity
electron affinity
energy released when an electron is added to an atom in the gas phase
-exothermic reaction
-exceptions : Be, N, Noble gases= 0
-Ne has no electron affinity
Ionization energy
minimum energy needed to remove an electron from an atom in the gas phase
Why does ionization energy decrease as you move down a group
1. electron shielding: making it easier for outer electrons to be removed
Why does ionization energy increase as you move across a period
atomic radius decreases thus the outer electrons become attracted to the nuclelu?s
becomes harder to remove the outer electron
What are the exceptions to ionization energy
Be > B
N > O
Why does atomic radius increase as you move down a group
number of energy levels increase as you move down
why does atomic radius decrease as you move across a period
electrons are being added at the same level and protons being added to the nucleus thus higher attraction pull
cation ionic radius
SMALLER than neutral atom
isoelectric series
calculate proton to electron ratio for each atom
smallest ratio= largest radius (less protons)
more protons= smaller atom
metallic and nonmetallic trend
metal oxides produce what type of solution
basic
nonmetal oxides produce what type of solution
acidic
bond length for X2 molecules
atomic radius * 2
bond length for X1 and X2 molecules
x1+ x2
the larger the n # the larger the
size
Which element has the greatest ionization energy
Helium
Which element has the lowest ionization energy
Francium
celcius to fahrenheit
Fahrenheit to celsius
Pressure formula
What causes an increase to pressure
decrease volume
increase moles
increase temperature
PV=nRT
What is the pressure of a gas collected over water
Pgas= P total- P H20
1 cm3=
1 mL
1 atm=
760 mmHg
760 torr
manometer
If an anonymous gas pushes the Hg level in a manometer down by 40 mm, the pressure of the gas is
1. assume 1 atm= 760 mmhg
2. 760 +40= 800 mmHg --> 1.05 atm
Ideal gas assumptions
1. gas particles are always moving randomly and constantly
2. volume or size of each individual gas molecule is insignificant (gas molecule is small compared to the space it occupies)
3. gas molecules collsions with each other are PERFECTLY ELASTIC --> co
What is the ideal situation for a gas
low pressure (lots of space, little gas molecules)
high temperature (high speed and movement)
Compression factor
ratio of the measured molar volume to calculated molar volume
Boyle law
boil potatoes and veggies
Charles Law
charles watches tv
high temperature= high volume
low temperature= low volume
Gay Lussacs law
PT is gay
increase temperature= increase pressure directly
Gas density
1 mol of any gas at STP is how many liters
22.4
increasing the MW of a gas results in the velocity
decreasing
Grahams law (effusion)
at constant temp
rate of diffusion or effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the sq root of their molar masses
Daltons law
total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum pressure of the individual components
How do you calculate individual pressures
P1= X1 * P total
X1= n1/ total mol
Real gas equation
nb- correct for repulsions
closer to 0= more ideal
strong intermolecular forces result in
high bp
high viscosity
high surface tension
low vapor pressure
when vapor pressure equals or exceeds atmospheric pressure the liquid
BOILS
phase changes
increasing the entropy (solid to liquid --> melting)
endothermic
add energy
What is vapor pressure
downward pressrue= atmospheric pressure
upward pressure= vapor pressure
increase vapor pressure does what to boiling point
decrease
Phase diagram
triple point
critical point --> supercritical fluid
phase diagram of water
solid to gas
sublimation
gas to solid
deposition
miscible
soluble
alcohols with less carbons are ________ soluble in water
more
concentration
the amount of solute in a solution
molality m
molarity M
Molarity
moles/ L of SOLUTION
Molality
moles of solute/ Kg of SOLVENT
NO3-
nitrates are ALL soluble
C2H3O2-
acetate are ALL soluble
Cl-, Br-, I-
soluble EXCEPT Ag, Pb, Hg2+2
SO4-2
Soluble EXCEPT Ba2+, Pb2_, Ca 2+, and Sr2+
CO3-2 and PO43-
All carbonates and phosphate INSOLUBLE except when with group 1 cations or ammonium
OH-
INSOLUBLE except when with a soluble group
S2-
sulfides are insoluble except when with soluble compoudns and alkaline earth
1 NPAA
nitrate (NO3)
perchlorate (ClO4)
acetate (CH2H3O2)
ammonium (NH4)
When are gasses most soluble
low temperature
high pressure
henrys law constant is temperature dependent
Ionic reaction
1. balance everything out
2. total ionic equation (split soluble compounds)
3. net ionic equation (no spectator ions)
increasing temperature does what to a SOLIDS solubility
increases
increasing temperature does what to a GAS solubility
decreases
(due to gas molecules moving faster, more likely to leave the liquid)
Increasing the pressure does what to a gas
increase its solubility
(gas ability to be soluble is dependent on its ability to stay in that liquid)
A gas pressure in a solution is ___________ to the amount of dissolved gas in a liquid
proportional
henrys law
2 pressure=
2 amount of gas that can dissolve in a solution
colligative properties
properties of a solution that change when you add more solute
Vapor pressure
a liquid with high vapor pressure boils at lower temperatures
What happens to the boiling point at higher altitudes
increases, since the atmospheric pressure decrease
Vapor pressure lowering
add solutes cause vapor pressure to decrease
the vapor pressure of a solvent in solution is always lower than vapor pressure of the pure solvent
Rauolts Law (vapor pressure depression)
Pa= Xa * Ppure
Pa= new vapor pressure
Xa= % of solvent in new solution
Ppure= vapor presssure of original solvent
Your water has initial pressure of 100 torr. When you dilator it by adding ethanol until you solution is 90% water, 10% ethanol. What happens to the vapor pressure?
Pa= Xa * Ppure
Pa= (.90) (100)
Pa= 90
Azeotropes
deviate from rauolts law
Azeotrope with dissimilar IMF
-endothermic mixing process
-mixtures boiling point decresases
-total vapor pressure is higher
Azeotrope with similar IMF
mixing process is exothermic
mixtures boiling point increases
total vapor pressure is lower than raoults law
boiling point increase
van hoff factor
ionic compounds
molecular compounds= 1
strong acids/bases= 2
freezing point depression
osmotic pressure
pressure needed to stop the flow of a solvent through a semipermeable membrane
rate of a reaction
reactants have -negative sign
rate law
k,m,n must be experimentally determined
products dont appear in rate law
m and n are reaction orders
zero order
rate= k
1st order
rate= k[A]
2nd order
rate= k [A][B] or k[A]^2 or k[B]^2
m1 * s-1
zero order
s-1
1st order
m-1 * s-1
2nd order
m-2 * s-1
3rd order
zero order graph
[concentration]
1st order graph
ln[concentration]
2nd order graph
1/[concentration]
curved line graphs
zero order- half life decreases with concentration (stright line)
1st order- half life constant is independent of concentration
2nd order- half life increases concentration decreases
bond order
cound pi and sigma bonds/ by number of attached atoms
Catalysts
1. can sometimes be proteins, sometimes not
2. not consumed in reactions
3. speed up a reaction by lowering Ea not changing the energy levels of the reactants or products
4. catalysts lower a reactions EA by prodividng an alternative pathway between react
Arrhenius Law
rate constant is exponentially related to the activation energy and temperature
higher temperature --> more collisions --> more molecules with enough activation energy
In order for a reaction to happen what must occur
1. both molecules must collide with each other
2. molecules need to collide with enough energy for a reaction to happen, get over the Ea barrier for the reaction
3. molecules need to hit each other with the correct 3D orientation
Exothermic energy plot
product energies lower than reactant
Endothermic energy plot
product energies higher than reactant
What is the highest energy complex in a reaction plot
activated complex (transition state)
How can you make the reaction faster
1. increase concentration
2. increase surface area
3. stir
4. increase temperature
5. add catalyst
6. add light
reaction mechanism
slow step + fast step= elementary steps
1. find the intermediate
2. find the overall rate law
3. what is the overall reaction
Finding the overall rate law using reaction mechanism
1. find slow step
2. look at the reactants
3. determine ratio
finding the overall reaction using reaction mechanism
1. write out the slow and fast steps
2. place slow and fast step reactants on one side and products on the other side
3. cancel out intermediates
equilibrium rate constant
product/ reactant
*does depend on the reactions coefficents
*no solids or liquids into this equation
Kc and Kp
have no units
use constants in molarity or pressure
ONLY TEMP CAN CHANGE K
reverse of Kc or Kp= 1/K
K> 1
PRODUCTS favored
K<1
REACTANTS favored
gibbs free energy and equilibrium
delta G varies with temperature
greater negative delta G= greater K
reaction quotient Q
Q=K system at equilibrium
Q>K system has to many products , will shift left
Q<K= system has to many reactants, will shift right
Lechatliers principles
1. adding or removing reactants or products
2. changing temperature
3. changing volume or pressure
4. adding a catalyst
Changing temperature
exothermic reactions have heat on PRODUCT SIDE
endothermic reactions have heat on REACTANT side
increasing pressure
decrease in volume
side with fewer moles gets favored
decreasing pressure
increasing volume
side with more moles get favored
catalyst or inert gas
dont shift the reaction
strong electrolytes
strong bases or acids or ionic compounds that completely dissolve in water
dont form equilibrium reactions
weak electrolytes
weak acids or bases or ionic compounds that do not dissolve full in water
Ksp
k values in which insoluble solids disassociate
1. calculate molar solubility
2. calculate ksp
3. calculate solubiilty for common ion effect
4. determine if precipitation will occur
Calculating molar solubility
What is the molar solubility of PbCl2 whose ksp= 2.5* 10-4
PbCl(s) --> Pb 2+ + 2Cl-
*PbCl does not appear in the ksp formula
ksp= [Pb2+][cl-]^2
use ice table
calculating ksp
Ionic compound A2B has solubility of 2*10-6M. What is ksp?
A2B(s) -----> 2A+ + B2-
**always set initial concentration of solid to 1
1. set up ice table
2. notice they said that solubility of solid is 2*10-6 so plug that in for x
3. solve
common ion effect
decrease in the solubility of an ionic salt because there is a commmon ion present in the solution already
causes shift to the left (precipitation happens)
pH change affect on solubility
if a weak acid or base is formed then equilibrum is shifted right thus increasing the solubility
determine if precipitation will occur
give each dissociating group the proper M value
plug int the ksp equation
ksp greater= precipitate
bronsted acid
donate protons
bronsted base
accept protons
strong acids
HI
HBr
HCl
HClO3
HclO4
H2SO4
HNO3
strong bases
group 1 metal hydroxides
Mg(OH)2
Ca(OH)2
Sr(oH)2
Ba(OH)2
monoprotic vs polypro tic acids
Binary acids
stronger acid= more electronegative
Oxyacids
more oxygen= more acidic
pH formula
disassociation constant
to find concentration of H+ sq root Ka*HA concentration
Kw
Find pH of weak acids
1. write out the equilibrium reaction constant for weak acid reacting with water
2. draw ice table
3. write out the ka or Kb depending on problem
4. solve for x or solve for Ka or kB --> IF GIVEN Ph THEN YOU USE THAT TO FIND HYDRONIUM ION CONCENTRATION AN
neutralization reactions always produce
water and salt
weak acid + strong base
ph greater than 7
strong acid + weak base
ph less than 7
strong acid + strong base
ph= 7
formula for neutralization reactions using normality
Na
Ma
Va= Nb
Mb
Vb
normality
how many H+ and OH- can the compound donate
equivalence point
moles of added known substance have STOICHIOMETRICALLY reacted with the moles of the unknown substance
equal moles of acid and base
henderson hasselbach equation
inflection point
pH= pKa
Buffer
contains weak acid and conjugate base
weak acid and strong base could work --> 2:1 ratio must happen though
cations=
acids
anions
base
neutral cations
group 1
group 2
metals with +1 charge
neutral anions
cl-
br-
I-
No3-
ClO4-
ClO3-
What are not state functions
heat and work
Energy
w+q
Thermodynamic law 1
energy can not be created nor destroyed
Thermodynamic law 2
entropy of universe is always increasing
one system becomes ordered it does so by making another system disordered
combined change in entropy of a system and its surroundings must be positive
Thermodynamic law 3
for a perfect crystal that has been cooled to 0K the entropy is close to zero
enthalpy
amount of heat energy a substance contains
enthalpy of formation
total product- total reactant
-entalpy of formation of any element in its standard state is 0
what are the only two elements liquid at room temp
Br and Hg
what elements are at gases at room temp
noble gases
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Flourine
Chloride
work
-p (delta V)
w>0
surroundings doing work on system
w<0
system doing work on surroundings
q>0
heat transferred to the system from surroundings
q<0
heat transferred from the system to the surroundigns
conduction
heat transfer due to direct contact
convection
heat transfer due to motion of a liquid or gas
radiation
heat transfer via electromagnetic radiation
q= -C calorimeter (delta T)
...
Heat curves
Ssolid < Sliquid< Sgas
entropy increases
HEss's Law
1. reverse a reaction --> signs are reversed
2. multiply reaction --> delta H gets multipied too
bond dissociation energy
1. draw lewis structures
2. write down the delta H value for each bond
3. bonds broken (reactants) -bonds formed (products)
Gibbs free energy
all spontaneous reaction result increase in entropy
tells you if a reaction is spontaneous or nonspontaneous
always spontaneous
-H, +S
always nonspontaneous
+H, -S
spontaneous at high temperatures
+H, +S
spontaneous at low temperatures
-H, -S
q=mCAT
always make sure the units are the same
Balancing redox reaction ACIDIC
1. balance all atoms not oxygen or hydrogen
2. balance oxygen by adding H2O
3. balance hydrogen by adding H+
4. add e- when necessary to balance the charge on each side
5. add integers to half reaction to make mole of e- equal on both sides
Balancing redox reaction BASIC
1. For each H+ that you end up adding add the same number of OH's to both sides ---> combine to form H2O
3. balance rest out
oxidizing agent
gets reduced
reducing agent
gets oxidized
Anode
Oxidation
Cathode
reduction
what is the purpose of a salt bridge
allow ions to flow back and forth so that charge does not build up
A battery is a type of
galvanic or voltanic cell
Galvanic/voltanic cells
spontaneous electrochemical reaction
electrons flow from anode to cathode
anode= -
cathode= +
electrons flow from high energy to low energy
electrolytic cells
nonspontenous reaction
E cell is negative
anode= +
cathode= -
electrons still flow from anode to cathode
cell potential
reactions in a reduction table are likely to get reduced if they are positive and high in magnitude
they are likely to get oxidized if they are negative and high in magnitude
full cell potential
the sum of the cells potentials for the half reaction, describes the cell potential for the overall reaction
E redox + E oxidaiton= Ecell
*make sure to see if they give u E redox values and then switch
+Ecell
spontaneous
nerst equation
Log Q= product/ reactant
shift reaction right: change concentration of positive E cell
shift reaction left: E cell decreases
moles of plated product
(I)(Ts)/(n)(F)
I= current in amps
Ts= time (sec)
n= # of moles of electrons transfered per mole of product
F= faradays constant (100,000)
Alpha particle
4/2
Neutron
1/0 N
Proton
1/1 H
Beta particle
0/-1 e
Positron
0/1 e
Gamma particle
0/0 y
gamma particles are able to
penetrate the most since they are the smallest
alpha particles have the largest mass thus they
don't have as much penetration compared to gamma particles
nuclear emission (FISSION)
atom gives off/ emits a particle
nuclear capture (FUSION)
2 or more reactants combine to create a product
first order half life
second order half life
third order half life
atoms above the belt
high neutrons low protons
atoms below the belt
low neutrons high protons
nuclear binding energy
energy released when protons and neutrons come together to form the nucleus
The more positive the reduction potential is, the more readily they will undergo
reduction
The more negative the reduction potential, the more readily the element will undergo
oxidation
What type of solution does not conduct electricity
solvent and solute are non polar and non ionazable
ex. naphthalene and n-hexane
What temperature will the reaction become spontaneous
T= H/S
*make sure H and S are the same units J or KJ
Can catalysts affect the thermodynamics of a reaction
NO
they can not make a reaction exothermic if it is endothermic
they do not affect the temperature of the reaction
A radioactive compound is left out. After 54 years, it is examined and 1/16th of the original compound remains. What is the half life?
54/16= 4
An aqueous solution of HCl contains 36^ HCl by mass. What is the molality of the solution
1. assume 100g sample
2. 36g HCl, 64g water
3. molality= mol/kg
4. 1 mol HCl/.064= 15.5 m
True or False
Both diffusion and effusion are dependent on the molecular mass of the molecules
TRUE
Diffusion is always what type of process
spontaneous
Effusion is what type of process most commonly
nonspontaneous
depending on the nature of the pressure source
electrons
negative charge
small tiny positive mass
When it is bottled, the partial pressure of CO2 over a 1 L bottle of soda is 4.0 atm. The concentration of dissolved CO2 is 0.12M. The soda is opened and left at 1.0 atm. What will be the new concentration of dissolved CO2?
The partial pressure over a dissolved gas is proportional to the concentration of that gas in a solution
Henrys Law
concentration= (.12M)(1.0 atm)/ 4.0 atm= .03 M
max number of electrons in shells
spdf
2, 6, 10, 14
percent error
| standard-experiemntal |/ standard *100
A radioactive compound is left in a secure place for a long period of time. After 36 years, it is examined and 1/8th of the original compound remains. What is the half life?
1/8th= 3 half lives
36/3= 12 years per half life
If a strong base is introduced into an acetate buffer what is expected
concentration of acid will decrease and salt will increase
decrease in acid/salt ratio
Ion dipole forces
dipole attracted to an ion
occur between ions and polar molecules
systematic error
consistently biased or incorrect measurements
statistical error
mathematical processes used to determine error and the degree of confidence in measurements
What group does not react in flame tests
noble gases
percent yield
For a frist order reaction the half life for a particular reagent is dependent on
the reaction constant, k alone
For a second or zero order the half life is dependent on
both reaction constant, k
and initial concentration, [A]
mass defect
the overall mass of an atoms nucleus is less than the sum of the individual masses of the component protons and neutrons
The pH of a 1L aqueous solution of H3PO4 is 2.0. How many H+ atoms are in solution?
to find # of H+ atoms
pH= 10-2 ---> multiply this male quantity by 6.023*1023 --->
6.023*10-21
Daltons Law
6 moles of nitrogen and an unknown amount of hydrogen are held at 40atm. The partial pressure exerted by the nitrogen is 24atm. How many moles of hydrogen are present?
the partial pressure of hydrogen is 16.
since the gasses are under the same conditions, the partial pressures exerted are relative to the mole percent
6 mol/ 24 atm (40 atm-24 atm)= 4 mol
The solubility of a gas in a liquid is dependent on
temperature (inversely) and pressure (directly)
standard enthalpy change
Hrxn= H products- H reactants
Which of the following will cause an increase in the solubility of Be(OH)2 in water?
Be(OH)2 --> Be2 + 2OH-
any le chatterers stress that decreases the concentration of
adding HI
the H+ from the strong acid HI will consume OH- and thus the reaction will be pushed to favor the right side
If a first order nuclear decay took 4 seconds for 75% of a sample to decay, find the rate constant, k
The first step in most half-life problems is the discovery of the half-life, t1/2. In order for a substance to decay 75%, a time has passed equivalent to two half-lives, making the half-life of this substance 2 seconds long. If the first order half-life e
metal oxides= basic oxides
Na2O
Which of the following salts would result in a basic aqueous solution?
look at the conjugate bases of the compounds
HF= weak acid --> conjugate base of weak acid
weak base can alter the pH of a solution by removing protons from water or hydronium molecules and cause an increase in OH-
least ionic
smallest distance between the two elements
to break water up what kind of process is that
endothermic, heat most be added
which increases the H+ concentration
The solubility of dissolved oxygen in water is 1.25 x 10-4 M at 25�C, where the atmospheric mole fraction of oxygen is 0.21 and atmospheric pressure is 1.0 atm. In a pure oxygen atmosphere at the same pressure, what would the solubility be?
The partial pressure over a dissolved gas is proportional to the concentration of that gas in solution, according to Henry's Law. In a pure oxygen atmostphere, the partial pressure of oxygen would be 1.0 atm.
[O2]= (1.25*10-4M)(1 atm)/ (0.21 atm)
how many unpaired electrons does Mo have
Molybdenum has 6 unpaired electrons
The vapor pressure of pure water at 110�C is 1070 torr. A solution of ethylene glycol and water has a vapor pressure of 535 torr at 110�C. Assuming that Raoult's law is obeyed, what is the mole fraction of ethylene glycol in the solution?
Raoults Law: vapor pressure above a solution is equal to a the vapor pressure of the pure solvent times the mole fraction of the solvent
mole fraction= 535 torr/ 1070 torr= 0.5 M
A cation and anion will precipitate when their
ion product is greater than Ksp
A thermometer is placed in a pan of boiling water. The increase in temperature is observed to increase regularly, until the temperature approaches 100�C. At this point, the increase in temperature slows until, after some time, the temperature reaches 100�
The energy to increase the temperature of water from 98 to 99 is small however the energy needed to transform water at 100c into steam at 100c is very large
The energy barrier between phases is very high, while the energy to heat water (or steam) is much
Ferromagnetism
transition metals
results when individual paramagnetic atoms are aligned in a crystalline matrix
permanent magnetic
Which weighs the least
neutrons
electrons
protons
electrons
neutrons and protons are roughly1 amu
The entropy of an isolated system will never decrease
2nd law of thermodynamics
halogens with copper
green
intramolecular forces
forces that hold molecuesl together such as covalent and ionic bonds
voltage of cell
cathode - anode
True or False
both ionic and polar covalent compounds can give ions when dissolved in a solution
TRUE
HCl is a polar compound that gives ions when dissolved in water
How will formation of an insoluble product shift the equilibrium
shift equilibrium right
When a precipitate forms it is just a solid forming in solution. Solids are NEVER in the equation for equilibrium. Since that is the case, the formation of that solid essentially results in the loss of product (it's not exactly los
half life of second order reaction
-dependent on initial concentration
-dependent on rate constant --> which is dependent on temperature
half life changes as the reaction progresses unlike first order which is constant
alloy
solution of solids
melting point is lower than pure gold and silver
6 moles of neon and an unknown amount of chlorine are held at 66atm. The partial pressure exerted by the neon is 36atm. How many moles of chlorine are present?
6/36 * 30= 5 mol
A chemist wishes to prepare 500mL of 2.5M HCl. Concentrated HCl (10M) is available. Which of the following will give a 2.5 M solution?
use M1V1=M2V2
find V2
125mL
bronsted acids
1 �10?11 M HBr is added to a solution of pure water. What is the new pH of the solution?
As the concentration of an acid becomes smaller it has less of an effect on the solutions pH
Thus pH= 7
millimoles --> mole
divide by 1000
2mmol = .002 mol
Which orbital does not have a node at the nucleus
The s orbital does not have a node at the nucleus. p, d and f orbitals all have nodes located at the nucleus. The s orbital is shaped like a sphere, with electron density concentrated in the center and falling off as the distance from the nucleus increase
When the following equation is balanced in basic solution, what is the coefficient for CN?
1. break into separate half reactions
If a salt is dissolved in a solution that contains one of its ions
A salt dissolved in a solution that contains one of its ions is subject to a Le Chatelier's principle effect known as the common ion effect. The concentration of the ion already in solution contributes to the ion product formed when the salt dissolved. It
What are the three types of radiation
There are three types of radiation, alpha, beta, and gamma.
Alpha particles are a helium nucleus.
Beta particles are high speed electrons.
Gamma particles are high energy photons and have no mass.
Beta decay in a molecule is the conversion of a neutron, t
add unknown base to reaction
Two types of bases are possible. A base that is OH?
OH
?
and a base that is not. If the base is OH?
OH
?
, it affects equilibrium directly by increasing product and shifting equilibrium to the left. If the base is not OH?
OH
?
, it would deprotonate water
How to distinguish polar from ionic compound
Dissolved ionic compounds will conduct electricity, whereas polar compounds are not good conductors. Conductivity relies on the free movement of charge, but the electrons in polar (i.e. covalently bonded) molecules are confined to their bonds. Polar solve
Elastic collision
Elastic collisions are an assumption of the kinetic molecular theory of gases, and are collisions where the net energy is constant. Any energy lost by one particle is gained by the other.
vapor pressure
The vapor pressure is exerted by gasses on liquids, increases as the temperature increases, and when vapor pressure equals the external pressure, the liquid has reached the boiling point.
What is rauolts law
Raoult's law is the basis for distillation, the separation of mixed liquids. When a solute is added to the liquid, the vapor pressure of the liquid decreases. This creates a difference which can be exploited by distillation. The liquids are condensed at d
hydrated salts
This complex compound is called a hydrate, a salt bound to water molecule(s). In order to obtain three moles of pure CaCl2
, we must acquire a sufficient amount of solution first. One mole of this hydrate complex contains one CaCl2
and two H2O molecules.
True or False
Solvation is spontaneous because it always increases entropy.
TRUE
Bases
ases react with acids in solution to yield higher OH- concentrations in solution. Because water is amphiprotic, it can either act as an acid or a base. Water is an acid when in contact with a base, and a base when in contact with an acid. Water is also a
Breaker catches fire
A small fire contained in a vessel such as a beaker can be smothered by covering it with a glass dish or any other flame retardant item. Without oxygen the fire will go out. At this point the instructor can be called to handle the beakers extinguished con
viscosity
Understanding the role that intermolecular forces play in viscosity is key. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a liquid to tensile stress. For example, a liquid that is slow to spill out of a jar is displaying resistance to the stress that gravit
sublimation
At very low pressures, ice will sublime to steam, without forming a liquid, if it is heated. If it is heated at higher pressures, it will melt. If it is cooled at any pressure, it will not change phase (although at very low temperatures and specific press
adding solutes to water
Upon introduction of additional solutes to water, we observe a boiling point elevation according to the colligative properties. This means that when CH3COOH
and NaCl
are introduced to solution, boiling point increases, and vapor pressure decreases accordi
capillary action
Capillary action is seen in very small tubes where cohesive and adhesive forces can exceed the force of gravity on a liquid and draw it up the small tube. Capillary action can occur at high and low pressures, although it will be stronger at lower pressure
a compound that is weakly soluble in water
The strength of an electrolyte is not related to solubility. As long as even the smallest amount of material is soluble, an electrolyte may be formed. Its strength, however, is dependent upon the degree of ionization. Strong acids and bases, for example,
Percent Change Formula
(New amount-original amount)/original amount
Negative percent error
Experimental value is less than theoretical value
percent error formula
Experimental value- theoretical value/ theoretical value * 100%
Amount not collected using percent error
Theorteical- experimental value
In a titration is the molarity if the titrand known?
No the solution being ttitrated in tbe erlyn meyer flask is not of know molarity
Homogenous mixtures are separated by
Distillation/ condensors
If standard deviation is lower than the amount of measured items then we say
The value is precise
What is the Rf formula
Distance traveld by solute/ distance traveled by solvent
Less polar travels faster
What has low ionization energy
Low melting point
Exhibit high conductivity
Alkali metal
What element has the lowest ionization energy
Francium (Fr)
What element has the highest ionization energy
Helium
The amount of energy it takes to remove an electron
Ionization energy
Exceptions to ionization energy
Be>B and N>O
Going left to right we are increasing the
Number of protons �-> Zeff sucks in the electrons more
Atoms in the 3rd period and below
Can bond to more than their octect holds
Nitrogen is more readily form pi bondd than phosphorus because
Nitrogen had a smaller size and this nitrogen atoms can easily approach one another
2 domains
180- linear
3 domains
120- trigonal planar
1 lone pair= BENT
4 domains
Tetrahedral
1-trigonal pyramidal
2- bent
5 domains
Trigonal bypyramidal
1- see saw
2- t shaped
3- linear
6 domains
Octahedral
1- square pyramid
2- square planar
Size
Principle quantum number
Azimuthal
L
Shape
Magnetic
Ml
Orientation
V shaped bent molecules have how many lone pairs and how many bonding orbitals
2 bonding orbitals
2 pairs of lone pairs
109.5 angle
What molecule has the smallest bond angle
Draw out lewis structure and match angle degree
Having lone pair lowers the degree
How is the number of possible bonds determined
Vacancies in the valence shell
Reducing agent
...
Corrosion
Metals like steal rust, one part kf the metal gets oxidized as electrons pass from jt to ankther area that gets reduced. Water acts as a conduit for electrons and O2 ultimate oxidant
Zince plate minimizes corrosion because he zinc is more easily oxidized
True or false
To be able to be oxidized the species can not be at its maximum oxidation state
To be reduced the species can not be at its minimum oxidation state
True
H2O2 can act as an oxidizing agent or reducing agent
This is because the oxygen is at a -1 state and csn go to -2 state to be reufced or it csn go to 0
Which of the following acts as a reducing agent
Lookk for a negative charge
True or false for a spontaneous reaction to take place electrolytic cell the cathode must have a reduction potential
Higher than that of the anode
Electrolytic cells
Have external batteries
True or false
Salt bridges drive the current
False they only balance out charges
Electrolytic cell
Cathode is negative
Anode is positive
Galvanic cell
Cathode is positive
Anode is negative
The flow of electrons for electrolytic and galvanic cell
BOTH FLOW FROM ANODE TO CATHODE
Nuclear binding energy
Energy needed to spit the nuclear particles protons and neutrons into i dividual components
The higher the nuclear bjnding the energy the more stable the nucleus the harder it is to decompose
Zero order
M�s-1
First order
S-1
bond dissociation energy is always
Positive becuase you have to put energy in to break the the bond
How does enthalpy different between liquid and gas
To go from liquid to gas requires an input of enegy there for we would expect a gas to have a more oositive (less negavtive) enthalpy as more energy jd invovled
Equilibrium
- rate if forward reactions and reverse reactions are at equilibrum
-concentrations of products and reactants are not equal to each other but remain constant
-equilibrum constant depends on temperatue and gives ratio of products and reactants at equilibru
If salt makes a weak acid then the salt will have higher solubility
True
AgCl vs BaF2 in HCl
BaF2 will have high solubtiity in HCl than pure water
High Ksp value
Greater amount of ions in solution
The higher the solubility of the salt is
Common ion present shifts reaction
To reactant side
Base with the highest kB is the conjugate of an acid
With the lowest kA
The lower the ksp value
Precipitate will form first
Adding coefficients in front of every substance in a chemical reaction what happens to the Keq
The initial keq is raised to that value of the coefficents
(Ka)(KB)=Kw=10�-14
...
pKa + pKb =
14
pKa
-logKa
How is the strength of an acid determined
How much the acid dissociates
Weaker the bond holding the proton to the molecule the stronger the acid
What neutralizes the acid the fastest
A base capable of absorbing the most protons per molecule
Give you equation and kB and ask for ph
Set up KB equation and plug in values and solve for x
And then 14-pOH
Equivalence point
Mols of Acid is equal to mols of base
Volatility
Higher= evaporate more easily
Why do liquids boil faster at higher altitudes
There is less pressure
So the vapor pressure of the liquid has to be raised to a lesser amount to equal the surrounding pressure
It takes less energy
Boiling points at high altitudes are less than 100c
Larger molecules tend to be more
Polarizabke and exhibit greater intermolecular forces
As molecules get heavier they exhibit greater amount of IMF forces
Accounts for why Br is a liquid and I is a solid
Force of interaction
Charges/ distance
Glass is a
Polar substance
Mercury is a
Nonpolar substance
In mercury convex
Cohesion forces are greater than adhesion
Capillary actions pull mercury edges down
Electrolyte
A substance that dissolves in water to give a solution that conducts electric current
Gives off ions when dissolved in water
Pure gassed
Purely covalent bonded
Nonpolar
Minimal intermolecular forces acting
Weak bonding structure
Low melting points
Which molecule would have greater melting point
Can look at Coulomb's law if ionic compounds
Intermolecular forces
Size
What does the average kinetic energy of gas molecules depend on
ONLY TEMPERATURE of the system
Kp=
Products/reactant
Density of gas
PM/RT
Work formula
-P delta V
More moles of gas
Higher entropy
More particles
More pressure