Herbert Hoover *******
Coolidge's secretary of Commerce who was elected to run for presidency in his place, the Republicans nominated this person. - He was born into poverty in Iowa. He was an orphan, but went to Stanford University and became a famous mining engineer & made millions. - To challenge him, the Democrats nominated Al Smith (Governor of New York). - He ran on the Republican's economic record which was very good. This resulted in a 45% increase in national income and 5 million new homes, & a 66% increase in high school attendance. Americans were confident that the prosperity of the 20's would continue under this president so he was easily elected by a large majority. - His presidency was dominated by the Great Depression. Within 6 months of his taking office the Stock Market crashed. - signed the Smoot-Hawley Tarriff hoping this would save the economy (it didn't). - Despite the misery of the Depression, this President continued to assure Americans that "prosperity is just around the corner."
In reality, prosperity was a long way off.
He did propose a number of relief programs but insisted that they be funded by state & local projects. The trouble was: states & cities were just as broke as the American people; therefore, no immediate help was coming. - He refused to offer federal aid directly to the American people because he believed that federal assistance would cause people to become dependent on the federal government and this would sap them of their will to work & initiative. He also believed that the depression would be a minor economic downturn and that conditions would improve quickly. He thought it far better to tough out the depression than radically change the capitalist system. - in 1932, he vetoed a bill that would have paid an early bonus that was promised to WWI veterans. When he did this a "bonus army" of 20,000 veterans came to DC. He was blamed for the Bonus Army incident which influenced his chance of re-election. - In 1932 he was nominated for a second term by the Republicans. He was widely unpopular because of his weak response to the depression and most Americans knew he would lose badly. He was challenged in 1932 by Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR).
Smoot-Hawley Tariff
In June of 1930 Congress submitted the this to Pres. Hoover for approval // it was a tariff (a tax on imports) // the purpose for this was to protect American Industry by placing a very high tax on imported goods // The hope was, Americans would buy US goods and this would stimulate the economy. // Hoover signed the bill hoping this would save the economy. Unfortunately though, the tariff only deepened the economic crisis // Why? Foreign nations responded to the tariff by placing tariffs of their own on US goods // So as a result, factories sold even fewer US goods and the downward spiral continued.
The Dust Bowl********
developed on the Great Plains // This was an economic disaster, in which the topsoil dried up and was carried away by the winds of the plains // The disaster was caused by several years of drought and over working the soil // As the topsoil from Texas to Canada dried up, the winds carried it hundreds of miles away // Crops failed, livestock & people suffocated in dust storms called "black blizzards." // The dust bowl continued until the rains returned in 1936. // Happened during the Great Depression
The Bonus Army *********
In 1932, Hoover vetoed a bill that would have paid an early bonus that was promised to WWI veterans. The veterans were supposed to receive a bonus of $1,000 for their services in WWI. They weren't supposed to get the money until 1945. However, many pressed congress to get the bonus early because they were struggling in the Depression // When Hoover vetoed the early bonus, a "_________ _________" of 20,000 veterans descended on Washington. Hoover offered tents & medical units be made available to the men camping out in DC but a few communist agitators encouraged men in the group to throw stones & bricks at the police. When this happened, Hoover decided to quell the riots. He ordered the army to remove the rioters and escort them back to their tent camps. // Unfortunately, General Douglas McArthur, the army's chief of staff used tanks, tear gas, & soldiers with fixed bayonets to clear the streets. They then invaded the camps & burned them down. Sadly, 2 bonus marchers were killed in the fight. // Quite unfairly, Hoover received full blame for the disaster. The year this happened, 1932, was an election year and the incident guaranteed that Hoover had zero chance of being reelected.
Fascism
In Italy, the people turned to a new ideology called ___________ // This was a system of government marked by centralization of authority under an absolute dictator // It is a system that tends to be militaristic & intolerant // __________ comes from the word Fasces- meaning a bundle of rods tied together with an axe // It's a symbol of power & strength through unity. // brought to Italy by Benito Mussolini.
Benito Mussolini
man who brought fascism to Italy // a WWI vet // founded the Fascist Party in Italy in 1919 // created a para-military unit called the Black Shirts to help him gain power, by terrorizing political opponents // In 1922, he became prime minister in Italy and in 1925 he made himself dictator: taking the title Il Duce (the Leader) // Upon taking power, Mussolini's answer to economic problems was a military build up threatening neighbors & trying to conquer colonies to improve Italy's economy. His eventual goal was to create a new Roman Empire, with himself as Caesar. // his rise to power inspired another WWI veteran in Germany // After some very hard fighting, US and British forces successfully drove him from power.
He was even captured, but a daring raid by Hitler' s commandos rescued him. Once his government collapsed, Hitler sent in his army to continue the fight for Italy. The battle for Italy continued for the rest of the war.
Adolf Hitler *********
The Nazi Party
Hitler's party that he formed after being released from jail // wasn't popular until after 1930, when the depression hit Germany // the National Socialist Germany Workers Party (a new Fascist party) in Germany // anti-Semitic & blamed all of Germany's problems on the Jews
Paul von Hindenburg
won the presidential election of 1932 in Germany // beat Hitler // appointed Hitler as chancellor bc of his popularity
Frankin Roosevelt**********
The CCC********
a New Deal legislation // The Civililan Conservation Corps
Under this, young men, aged 18-25 provided unskilled manual labor in conservation such as constructed buildings & trails & state & national parks, planting trees, archaeological excavation, etc. Provided workers with food, clothing, shelter, & education. Paid $30 a month: $25 sent home to family. Came to an end in 1942. Over the course of its existence it employed some 3 million young men.
National Industry Recovery Act
The NRA // Created in 1933 // Designed to stabilize economy by eliminating competition // Set wages & prices and working conditions for American laborers.
Workers could only be paid so much and the same amount. Businesses could only charge a certain amount for a product to bring about equality. // Problem is not all products are equal; not all workers are equal // NRA actions actually led to a decrease in productivity - Why work harder if you get paid the same as your lazy neighbor? // In 1935 the Supreme Court ruled the NRA to be unconstitutional
Agricultural Adjustment Act
May of 1933 // Purpose: to help raise farm prices // Govt imposed quotas on crop production which gave farmers subsidies to keep some land unplanted // As a result, farm prices rose, but the plan was unpopular because many faced starvation //
Supreme Court ruled it unconstitutional
The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
FDIC // Provides monitoring and insurance for bank deposits. // Goal: to create public confidence in banks to get people to deposit money again. // It was created with the Banking Act of 1933 which insured deposits up to $2,500. Today, deposits are guaranteed up to $250,000
Jesse Owens
Son of Alabama sharecroppers who shattered the myth of the German "super men" and "master race" at the Olympics by winning 4 Gold Medals. By the time it was over, the German fans were cheering for him too.
Anschluss
Hitler's proposition for Austria and Germany to unify // they did so against their will
Blitzkrieg
aka lightening war // On September 1, 1939, Hitler's army invaded Poland. His forces showed no mercy to hospitals, schools or churches. Poland fell after a month // In response to the invasion; Britain declared war on Germany. Soon after the Germany offensive halted, Russia invaded from the East and Poland was torn apart
Winston Churchill
Prime Minister of Britain during WWII // part of the Big Three with Stalin & FDR
Operation Barbarossa
May 1941 //Hitler began amassing his army on the Russian border. More than 3 million men, thousands of tanks and thousands of planes moved to Germany's eastern border.
He believed that Russia would be easy to defeat. He told his generals to "kick the door in and the whole rutting structure will collapse."
On June 22, 1941, Hitler ordered Operation Barbarossa to begin the invasion of Russia.
This attack shocked the Russians, who had signed the non-agression pact with Germany. This offensive opened the door to the Holocaust. The vast majority of Europe's Jews lived in Russia and Eastern Europe. Within a matter of days tens of thousands of Jews were massacred and the Holocaust was just beginning.
Pearl Harbor
On the Morning of December 7, 1941, waves of Japanese Zeros from 4 aircraft carriers struck the US Naval Base at Pearl Harbor. Their main target was battleship row. Within an hour, the Japanese had sunken two battleships and severely damaged 4 more.
Worst damage came to the USS Arizona.
In total 18 US ships were damaged or destroyed and nearly 200 plans were destroyed. Worst of all, 2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 were wounded in the attack. Half of the deaths were among members of the USS Arizona. Luckily, the US aircraft carriers were out to sea when the attack occurred. Soon after the attack occurred, Hitler declared war on the US and the nation found itself right in the middle of the war, despite efforts to avoid it.
The attack United the country like nothing before it. On the following day December , 1941. President FDR declared war on the empire of Japan and Nazi Germany.
Executive Order 9066
In February of 1946 FDR signed this which provided for the internment of some 110,000 people of Japanese descent. About 65 % of those interned were US citizens. These people were placed in camps and their property was taken from them and sold and they broke no laws. An ugly moment in our nation's history.
Auschwitz
most infamous of the Jewish death camps // a massive death camp in southern Poland. An estimated 1.1-1.3 million Jews were killed here.
Coral Sea
May 1942, Japanese naval forces advanced towards Australia but US and Australian naval units met them at this battle // First naval battle in history where neither fleet sighted the other because it was all done by aircraft from AC carriers // US forces lost the USS Lexington (AC carrier) but they halted the Japanese advance towards Australia.
Battle of Midway
June of 1942 // This battle took place in the South Pacific. // US AC carriers that escaped attack at Pearl Harbor successfully attacked the Japanese AC carriers that had participated in the Pearl Harbor strike. US Torpedo Bombers caught the Japanese carriers off guard while their planes were refueling and rearming. When the US planes stuck, they easily destroyed all 4 Japanese carriers, getting revenge for Pearl Harbor.
US navy lost the carrier USS Yorktown and 35 out of the 41 planes that attacked the carriers but this is seen as a major turning point in the war.
Stalingrad
the heaviest fighting in the Battle for Russia took place here // acity on the Volga river // The Germans were determined to take it and the Russians were determined to save it due to its name. Named after the boss. Fighting would last from August of 1942 until February of 1943. // The Soviet Victory here was a huge moment in WWII. It was seen as THE turning point in Europe. From this point on, the German forces beat a slow but steady retreat back towards Germany.
Operation Overlord*******
On June 6, 1944 some 150,000 men from the US, Britain, and Canada landed in Normandy, France to begin the liberation of Europe. German forces had prepared the beaches for assault but they falsely believed that the attack would come at Calais rather than Normandy. Despite this, heavy fighting did take place at Normandy. Before beginning the invasion, Eisenhower described it as a "Great Crusade" and told his men that "the eyes of the world were upon you." On the night before the bulk of the forces made landfall, allied paratroopers jumped behind the lines to prepare the way for the next morning's assault. Heaviest fighting took place on Omaha Beach. US suffered some 2,000 to 5,000 casualties.
Battle of the Bulge
Hitler's plan was to assault through the Ardennes and drive the allies back in what became know as ___________________ // German forces launched a surprise attack on Dec. 16, 1944 taking advantage of heavy snow and low visibility. Hitler's Panzer tanks drove the allied front back dozens of miles and threatened to break through their lines. However, the battle hardened 101st airborne made a stand at a Belgian town called Bastogne. German forces surrounded them, but they refused to surrender the town.
On Dec. 24th, heavy cloud cover lifted and US airpower began to pound the Germans.
Eventually, General George Patton' s 3rd Army broke through and relieved Bastogne.
Germans lost over 125,000 casualties in the battle; US forces lost over 100,000 casualties.
Leyte Gulf
In the battle for the Islands, US forces destroyed much of the Japanese Navy at the Battle of __________________ on October 20th. // Japanese lost over 12,000 dead and about 30 ships (including an AC carrier) and 300 planes. US Navy suffered 3,000 casualties and lost 6 ships. // After the naval battle US Marines came ashore and began the liberation of the Islands. Liberation was not completed until summer of 1945 following the destruction of Japanese Navy. Japanese became more desperate and began relying on Kamikaze pilots (suicide pilots) to sink US ships.
Harry S. Truman
Following FDR's death, his VP became president // When informed he was now Pres. ____________ said " I feel like the moon, stars, and all the planets have fallen on me." // As US prepared to invade Japan, he feared there could over 300,000 US dead. Rather than risk the lives of that many Americans, he decided to put his trust in a program called the Manhattan Project. This project began in 1942 and the goal was to develop an atomic bomb. He gave Japan an ultimatum to surrender and when they didn't he ordered the dropping of the 1st atomic bomb // ordered the dropping of a second atomic bomb on Nagasaki // He saw Russia as next major threat to world peace and was determined to confront them. He & many advisors wanted to use the power of the US to order the world in the direction of democratic capitalism // his own doctrine facing the communist threat: US decided on a 3 part strategy to deal with Russian subversion- 1)Build up the US military, 2) send military aid & assistance to threatened nations, 3) give economic aid & assistance to needy nations. // he was a supporter of Civil Rights // won election of 1948 // held responsible for the "loss of China
The Manhattan Project*****
This project began in 1942. // Goal was to develop an atomic bomb. In this project, a team of scientists led by Dr. Robert Oppenheimer began secretly working with Uranium and Plutonium at Los Alamos laboratory in New Mexico. The first successful test of an atomic bomb took place on July 16, 1945 at Alamogordo, NM.
The plan was originally to drop the bombs on Germany, but they weren't ready in time.
President Truman gave Japan an ultimatum to surrender, but when they didn't, he ordered the dropping of the 1st atomic bomb
capitalism
an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state. // Truman and his advisors wanted to move the US towards this
communism
a theory or system of social organization based on the holding of all property in common, actual ownership being ascribed to the community & the state.
Or:
a system where a totalitarian state dominates by a single political party. // . Kennedy spoke out against this // Russians claimed that this was superior to capitalism
Massive Retaliation
the US could maintain order in Europe without a massive occupying army. The bomb seemed to allow the US to fight a cold war w/ Russia without demanding any sacrifices from US citizens. No massive troop losses, no massive expenses. If Russians get out of sorts; just nuke 'em.
This strategy came to be known as _____________ Problem: the early atomic bombs (1945-1949). They were not powerful enough to destroy Russia and US didn't have enough of them to truly deter Russia.
The Truman Doctrine
a 3 part strategy to deal with Russian subversion:
1)Build up the US military
2)Send military aid & assistance to threatened nations
3) Give economic aid & assistance to needy nations. // However, Truman faced a big problem- Congress saw no need to fund any of those projects & neither did most of the American taxpayers. In order to receive the funding, Truman had to convince Americans of the Soviet threat. // stated that whenever or wherever any anti-communist govt was threatened, local insurgents, foreign invasion, or diplomatic pressure, the US would supply political, economic, & military aid. The Truman Doctrine can also be described as a policy of Containment
Domino Theory
stated that if one state in a region falls to communism, others will soon follow. In making the case for US intervention, Acheson stated that if Greece was allowed to fall, Turkey would be next & then the Middle East
Dean Acheson
The under-secretary of Defense // Made a presentation to congress where he introduced the "Domino theory.
Jackie Robinson*****
On April 15th, 1947, Baseball became integrated on that day when this player suited up and went out to play for the Brooklyn Dodgers.
Baseball had been all white for generations black players had played in the Negro league. They were poorly paid and travelled from town to town barnstorming. The top players: Satchel Paige, Josh Gibson, and George "Cool Papa" Bell were as good as if not better than the top MLB stars.
The vast majority of MLB owners opposed integration; however, Branch Rickey of the Dodgers was an exception. Mixing deep religious values with shrewd business sense,
Rickey insisted that integration was good for America and for baseball.
Rickey specifically chose this player to be the man to integrate baseball. He was 27 yrs old and had great talent and pride. // Son of sharecroppers from GA. His family moved to Pasadena, CA and he earned a scholarship to UCLA. There he lettered in 4 sports: football, baseball, basketball and track.
He was drafted into the Army during WWII and faced court-martial when he refused to move to the back of an army bus. He was acquitted of the charge of insubordination and left the army in 1944. //
After the Army, he joined the Kansas City Monarchs, a team in the Negro Leagues where he played short stop. Brach Rickey secretly met with Robinson in 1945. Talent was not an issue; what concerned Rickey the most was Robinson's temper. Could he handle the insults and racial discrimination he would face? Robinson asked Rickey "Do you want a ball player who is afraid to fight back?" Rickey responded "I want a ball player whit enough guts not to fight back" Robinson promised to take the abuse for the good of the cause of integration. Robinson kept his word and endured a lot of abuse. Pitchers threw at his head, he was not allowed to sleep in white only hotels etc., even death threats. Soon fans and players began to accept Robinson's presence and he went on to lead the Dodgers to the NL Penant and won Rookie of the Year. But the struggle wasn't over. It would be another decade before all MLB teams accepted integration.
Branch Rickey
owner of the Dodgers who did NOT oppose integration // Mixing deep religious values with shrewd business sense, he insisted that integration was good for America and for baseball. // he specifically chose Jackie Robinson to be the man to integrate baseball. // secretly met with Robinson in 1945. Was most concerned with Robinson's temper // Robinson asked him "Do you want a ball player who is afraid to fight back?" He responded "I want a ball player whit enough guts not to fight back
Berlin Airlift******
1st major test to containment came in June of 1948 with the Berlin Crisis. It began when US & western powers decided to united their western German sectors & form a W. German govt. The Russians feared a united W. Germany. In response, Stalin moved to cut off W. Berlin from all outside connections. Russian forces blockaded the city; cut roads, railwaylines & water traffic.
They hoped to cause the western powers to abandon W. Berlin // In response, US General Lucius Clay wanted to break the blockade using military force. More than likely, this would have started WWIII. Cooler heads prevailed though, and the Western Powers supplied the cityFrom June of 1948- May 1949 // US, British, & Canadian air forces flew food & supplies into city (Coal) supplying up to 13,000 tons of goods per day. This airlift continued until the Soviets lifted the blockade in May of 1949.
NATO
In April of 1949 the US created an alliance with Western Democratic powers called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. It was made up of Western European nations, as well as the US, & Canada. In this treaty, all the nations pledged themselves to mutual assistance in case of aggression against any of the member nations.
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
Soviets weren't expected to get the bomb until the mid '50's. However, they had spies in our Manhattan project. In fact, these two US citizens were captured for espionage because of their roles as couriers for the Soviets.
Dentente
the ease of hostility of strained relations, especially between countries
Mao Zedong
Gained control of China in 1949, by defeating nationalist leader Chiang Kai-Shek. As a result, another powerful nation became communist.
Syngman Rhee
When the people of South Korea held their elections, they chose ______________ as president of the New Republic of Korea. This would be a Non-Communist-Nationalist nation to the South of the 38th. He was an ardent Korean nationalist who had been educated in the US. // During WWII, he was absent from Korea, living in the US. As soon as the war ended, the US flew him to Korea to be their man in the country. The US also supported him & promoted him in the election. Unfortunately soon after taking power,
he began suppressing political dissent. Critics of his government were arrested & in some cases killed. The US was uncomfortable with his actions but he was anti-communists so he was tolerated. // Seoul was liberated on September 27th, and he was reinstated as S. Korea's president. The US & UN had achieved its goal of liberating the South & many believed the war was nearly over. // General McArthur & he, however, wanted to finish the N. Koreans off & reunite the country.
Kim II Sung
Meanwhile in the North, Russia, wanted to create a Communist govt. They selected ______________ as the leader of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in the North. Prior to WWII he became a Marxist guerilla fighting against the Japanese occupation. He spent World War II in Russia, receiving further training as a Communist guerilla. After WWII ended, he was hand-picked to be the leader of North Korea. Upon coming to power, he established totalitarian rule, eliminating all opposition and/or criticism. He then cultivated a cult of personality around himself and had statues built, & began calling himself "Great Leader." // Soon after placing him in power, the Russians also began training & supplying troops in the North. He hoped to reunite the Koreas under his rule through military conquest. As a result the US began doing the same in South Korea.
Pusan Perimeter
IT was a 140 mile defensive line around the south eastern portion of S. Korea. From there, the US had to make a stand or North Korean forces would conquer all of S. Korea. For the rest of the summer, the NKPA continuously attacked the Perimeter with massive assaults on 4 different fronts; but the US & ROK forces held. By September, enough US & UN reinforcements had arrived to save the Perimeter.
Incheon Landing
This invasion took place in the morning hours of Sep 15, 1950. Korean forces were greatly outnumbered and had only about 6,000 troops to try to hold the port. By nightfall, US troops had captured the port. US & UN forces lost 222 killed, 800 wounded while N Korea lost about 1,350 killed. Meanwhile, the US 8th Army broke out of the Pusan perimeter and began to drive the N. Koreans back. Soon their forces panicked and raced back to the 38th parallel to try to escape McArthur's trap. Seoul was liberated on September 27th, and Syngman Rhee was reinstated as S. Korea's president. The US & UN had achieved its goal of liberating the South & many believed the war was nearly over.
Douglas MacArthur
the army's chief of staff during the GD // actually responsible for the Bonus Army incident where he used tanks, tear gas, & soldiers with fixed bayonets to clear the streets. They then invaded the camps & burned them down. Sadly, 2 bonus marchers were killed in the fight.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
In November of 1942, led US forces to
launch Operation Torch: goal to help drive Nazis out of N. Africa. Overall the operation was very successful // supreme commander of Operation Overlord // "Great Crusade"; and told his men that "the eyes of the world were upon you. " // In November of 1952, he was elected president of the US. He had led the US to victory in WW2 and had promised to go to Korea to try to negotiate a peaceful end to the conflict. // Vowing to use the full power of the US to carry out the orders fo the federal court, he nationalized the Arkansas national guard and dispatched a thousand fully equipped paratroopers to surround the high school and escort the black students to their classes. The soldiers remained for months though peace was quickly restored
George Malenkov
Stalin's successor who wanted to make peace.
Brown v. Board of Education*****
The major issue facing the Supreme Court in 1953 was Civil Rights. For more than a decade, a talented group of AA attorneys had been filing legal challenges to segregated public facilities in the south hoping to erode the separate but equal doctrine of Plessy v. Ferguson. Led by Thurgood Marshall of the NAACP, these attorneys targeted specific areas such as professional education (Law, medicine, teaching) to establish precedents for the larger fight. This strategy worked well. With small victories the NAACP took on the larger challenge of segregation in public schools. Unlike previous cases which involved a small number of students, the new cases touched millions of children. Black and white in 21 states and in DC by 1953 five separate lawsuits had reached the Supreme Court challenging segregation in Public schools. Including Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. Brown involved a Kansas law that permitted cities to segregate their public schools. With NAACP support, the Rev. Oliver Brown sued the Topeka school board arguing that his 8 year old daughter should not be forced to attend a black school a mile away from home when there was a white school just 3 blocks away.
At first the supreme court was badly divided. Several justices supported the Plessy doctrine, others argued that it fostered racial inequality. Chief Justice Warren insisted that the SC speak in a powerful united voice against this evil. Anything less he reasoned, would encourage mass resistance in the south. On May 17, 1964, the SC overturned Plessy v. Ferguson in a stunning 9-0 decision written by Warren himself. The Supreme Court Chief Justice made the argument that racial segregation had a detrimental effect on black children by making them feel inferior to whites. "In the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place"
The Clark Doll Experiment (1939) was an experiment done by Dr Kenneth Clark
where they asked black children to choose between a black doll and a white doll.
The dolls were the same except for their skin colour but most thought the white doll was nicer. In 1954 in Brown v Board of Education said the experiment helped to persuade the American Supreme Court that "separate but equal" schools for blacks and whites were anything but equal in practice and therefore against the law. It was the beginning of the end of Jim Crow.
Thurgood Marshall
For more than a decade, a talented group of AA attorneys had been filing legal challenges to segregated public facilities in the south hoping to erode the separate but equal doctrine of Plessy v. Ferguson. Led by ________________ of the NAACP, these attorneys targeted specific areas such as professional education (Law, medicine, teaching) to establish precedents for the larger fight.
This strategy worked well.
The Clark Doll Experiment
(1939) was an experiment done by Dr Kenneth Clark where they asked black children to choose between a black doll and a white doll. The dolls were the same except for their skin color but most thought the white doll was nicer. In 1954 in Brown v Board of Education the experiment helped to persuade the American Supreme Court
that "separate but equal" schools for blacks and whites were anything but equal in practice and therefore against the law. It was the beginning of the end of Jim Crow
In the experiment Clark showed black children between the ages of six and nine two dolls, one white and one black, and then asked these questions in this order:
"Show me the doll that you like best or that you'd like to play with,"
"Show me the doll that is the 'nice' doll,"
"Show me the doll that looks 'bad',"
"Give me the doll that looks like a white child,"
"Give me the doll that looks like a coloured child,"
"Give me the doll that looks like a Negro child,"
"Give me the doll that looks like you."
"Negro" and "coloured" were both common words for blacks before the 1960s. The last question was the worst since by that point most black children had picked the black doll as the bad one. In 1950 44% said the white doll looked like them! In past tests, however, many children would refuse to pick either doll or just start crying and run away.
Earl Warren
replaced Chief Justice Fred Vinson after his death // Eisenhower's first appointment to the US Supreme Court // who won prompt congressional approval
The Montgomery Bus Riot******
The battle over public school integration was but one of many struggles in the South during the 1950's. Ordinary men and women determined to challenge racial segregation and second class treatment. The black people of Montgomery, Al had experienced such treatment for years. Montgomery enforced segregation and racial etiquette in meticulous detail. Blacks were supposed to tip their hats to whites, stand in the presence of whites unless told to sit, and always addressed whites with a title of respect such as "Boss, sir, Ma'am etc. Restrooms and drinking fountains, blood banks, movie theaters, cemeteries, were all separated by race. It was illegal for whites and blacks to associate in public. On the local buses, blacks paid their fares in the front, got off the bus, and reentered through the back, in the colored section. They also had to give up their seats to white passengers when the front section filled up. On December 1, 1955, a simple yet revolutionary act of resistance occurred on a crowded Montgomery bus
When Rosa Parks, a 42 year old black seamstress refused to give up her seat to a white man. The bus driver called the police at that point. "They got on the bus, Parks recalled, and one of them asked me why I didn't stand up." I asked him "Why do you push us around?" He said "I don't know, but the law is the law and you are under arrest."
Within days a boycott of the Montgomery bus system was begun organized by local clergy and the Women's Political Council, calling themselves the Montgomery Improvement Association. They chose a young minister named Martin Luther King Jr to lead them in the struggle for open seating up public transportation. A small but highly symbolic step. // Blacks in Montgomery formed car pools to get people to their destinations. The churches raised money for fuel and black owned garages did repair work free of charge. Many people rode bicycles or simply walked for miles. This boycott nearly bankrupted the city bus system and badly hurt the white merchants downtown. In November of 1956, the federal courts struck down the Alabama law requiring racial segregation in public transportation. A month later, blacks sat in the front of the Montgomery busses without incident. The boycott, lasting 381 days, demonstrated the power of collective action and the possibility of social change
Dr. MLK Jr.
a young minister who lead the AA in the struggle for open seating up public transportation. // at the time, he was 26 years old and a newcomer to Montgomery. He was the son of a well known Atlanta pastor. He earned his college degree at Morehouse and his doctorate at Boston University's school of Theology before heading south to serve as Pastor of Montgomery's Dexter Ave. Baptist Church in 1954. He was familiar with the works of Gandhi and he viewed mass action and nonviolent resistance as essential weapons in the war against racial injustice. He rallied the black community with the eloquent passion of his words. " There comes a time when people get tired," he told a packed rally after Rosa' Parks's arrest. "We are here this evening to say to those who have mistreated us so long that we are tired�tired of being segregated and humiliated. Tired of being kicked about by the brutal feet of oppression. We have no alternative but to protest." // King's reputation soared. He kept the movement together despite police harassment and the firebombing of his home. // King hoped to integrate Birmingham with a series of non-violent
protests codenamed Project C For confrontations. There were sit-ins at lunch counters, kneel ins at white churches, voter registration marches to city hall. City police dispersed protestors with attack dogs and high pressure water hoses. // On Aug 28, 1963, more than 200,000 gathered at the Lincoln memorial in the largest civil rights demonstration ever in the US. It was at this gathering that Dr. King gave his famous I have a dream speech. // led a protest march from Selma to Montgomery // On April 4, 1968 Dr. King was in Memphis. He was there to support striking African American sanitation workers. While there, he was shot and killed at the Lorraine Hotel by James Earl Ray, a white supremacist & fugitive from the Missouri State Pen. The nation was shocked by the killing and it served to radicalize the Civil Rights movement. King had preached non-violence but after his killing, groups like the Black Panthers became more popular.
Sputnik
On October 4, 1957, The Soviet Union shocked the world by launching ______________
The first satellite in orbit. It was a little metal ball with antennas that orbited the earth and beeped, but it scared the hell out of Americans: why?
It meant that the heartland of the US was vulnerable to nuclear attack by Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBM's).
This development terrified Americans and led to a nuclear arms race between the US & Soviet Union
John F. Kennedy
In 1960 the Democrats nominated _____________ a young senator from Mass. He was a WWII hero. First time in history debate was on TV. He did very well, and won voters over. In the end he won by a very narrow margin. 1st Catholic Pres. and youngest pres in history.
In his inauguration, he spoke out strongly against Communism and called for service and self-sacrificed for Americans. "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country!" // Soon after coming into office he faced a very serious Cold War challenge. The CIA had been planning to overthrow Cuban communist dictator Fidel Castro. He was pres during Bay of Pigs // put ship blockade around Cuba// sent congress one of the most sweeping civil rights bills in history.
The bill prohibited discrimination in in employment, federally assisted programs, and public accommodations such as restaurants and hotels
The Bay of Pigs
Soon after coming into office Kennedy faced a very serious Cold War challenge.
The CIA had been planning to overthrow Cuban communist dictator Fidel Castro. Kennedy approved of the plan. Plan was: to arm Cuban exiles and support them invading Cuba. They were supposed to have US air support. At last minute Kennedy withdrew it, for fear of angering Russia; Castro's protector. As a result; Exiles were slaughtered on the beach. It ended in disaster.
Cuban Missle Crisis (1962)*******
In October of 1962: US spy planes detected Russian nuclear missiles in Cuba. JFK demanded that Russians remove missiles. JFK put ship blockade around Cuba & ordered US military to prepare for invasion. Russian leader Nikita Khrushchev sent ships with more missiles to Cuba. Kennedy demanded that the ships be turned around or they would be fired upon. With 15 seconds to spare, the Russian ships turned away. The world came within moments of possible nuclear war. A few weeks later, all missiles removed from Cuba and US promised not to invade Cuba or try to overthrow Castro. Because of this crisis, a hotline was installed to connect the leaders of both countries
Nikita Khrushchev
Russian leader during Cuban missle crisis
James Meredith
A black air force veteran who wanted to attend the all white University of MS known as Ole Miss // opposition was present // Kennedy rushed in troops and federalized the state Guard. With 23,000 soldiers on campus Meredith registered for classes.
Project C
King hoped to integrate Birmingham with a series of non-violent protests codenamed _________________ for confrontations. There were sit-ins at lunch counters, kneel ins at white churches, voter registration marches to city hall.
Civil Rights Act of 1964*****
On November 22, 1963, JFK was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald. Lyndon B. Johnson, Kennedy's VP became pres. LBJ met with MLK and other black leaders to assure them of his commitment to civil rights. He also supported Kennedy's Civil Rights Act. In Feb of '64 the House of Reps easily approved it by a vote of 290 to 130 but the vote in the senate was much closer. The bill was finally passed in the senate on June 11th 1964 known as the Civil Rights Act of 1964. It withheld federal funds from segregated public programs, created equal employment opportunity commission, and outlawed discrimination in public accommodations such as restaurants, hotels and movie theaters. LBJ signed the bill into law on July 2nd 1964. Compliance came slowly, but the CR Act of 1964 marked the key turning point in the struggle for equal rights.
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Outlawed discriminatory voting practices and prohibited states from requiring qualified voters to pass literacy tests in order to register to vote. // A principal means by which Southern states had prevented African Americans from exercising the franchise. The Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson.
Despite the passage of the Voting rights Act, the battles for Civil Rights continued. Just because the laws were passed it did not mean southern society would obey them right away. Violence continued causing the injury and death of many civil rights protestors.
Ho Chi Minh
led a war against the French. He hoped to establish an independent Communist state. French forces were defeated at Dien Bien Phu. Communists gained full control of N. Vietnam
Ia Drang Valley
1st major battle took place in Nov of 1965
US forces of the 7th Cav under General Hal Moore
-US got about 400 troops into LZ Xray before they were surrounded by over 1,000 enemy troops
-NVA tried to crush Americans with overwhelming numbers
-With the support of US airpower, the Air Cav was saved.
-After 3 days, US forces pulled out of X-Ray
-B-52 bombers then came in & carpet bombed area // Lessons of the Ia Drang Battle:
-NVA body count high
-Problem though: Once US defeats enemy and takes objective, we then turn around and abandon the territory allowing enemy to return
-In many cases US troops return to same ground to fight enemy again later.
-This battle sets the stage for the rest of the War.
Tet Offensive*****
By 1968 the Communists decided they were ready to launch a major offensive against US forces & SVN. The NVA & VC would attack all major cities in SVN and launch an attack on the Marine base at Khe Sanh to distract Americans. On January 30, 1968, thousands of VC attacked all of the major cities. Heavy fighting in Saigon, the southern capitol & in Hue another major city. VC even made it inside the US embassy in Saigon. However, US & SVN forces fought well and quickly put down the offensive, killing about 80,000 Communists. Unfortunately for US though; this was a public relations nightmare. Americans were already tired of this War. LBJ told them it was almost over: he lied and this looked really bad. Many turned away from the war & stopped supporting it. War became very unpopular. This was the decisive turning point in the war. // as a result, LBJ announced that the US would begin withdrawing from VN