Learning
a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
Instinct
unlearned behaviors due to evolution. Ex. bears hibernating.
Habituation
an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it
Associative Learning
learning that certain events occur together; these events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)
Classical Conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Respondent Behavior
: behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus. Only occurs in classical conditioning
Unconditioned Response (UR or UCR)
in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US/UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth
Unconditioned Stimulus (US or UCS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
Neutral Stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that has no effect on the subject
Conditioned Response (CR)
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned, stimulus, the CS
Unconditioned Response (CS)
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus (NS) that, after association with an UCS/US, comes to trigger a CR
Acquisition
the process of learning a conditioned response
Higher-Order Conditioning
a procedure in which the CS in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (an often weaker) CS
Extinction
the process of unlearning or removing a conditioned association
Spontaneous Recovery
the reappearance, after a break, of an extinguised conditioned response
Generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses
Discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and stimuli that do not signal a UCS
Taste Aversion
a classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food
Learned Helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation a person, or animal, learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive (negative) events
Behavorialism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes
Operant Behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. Only occurs in operant behavior
Law of Effect
E.L. Thorndike's principle that states behaviors followed by favorable consequences will be repeated, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences will be diminished
Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)
a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer that can record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking
Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Chaining
reinforcing individual responses in a sequence to form a complete behavior
Discriminative Stimulus
a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement
Reinforcer
any consequence that strengthens a behavior
Positive Reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as money, praise, a hug, etc
Negative Reinforcement
increasing behaviors by reducing an aversive (bad) stimulus, such as putting up your umbrella so you don't get wet when it's raining
Premack Principle
preferred behaviors can be used to reinforce unpreferred behaviors
Vicarious Reinforcement
reinforcement which is received indirectly by another person who is being reinforced
Primary Reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need, like eating when hungry
Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforce, like choosing to go out to Moe's to eat when hungry instead of eating a carrot at home
Token Economy
collecting tickets or tokens for good behavior that can be traded in for prizes or privileges at a later date
Immediate Reinforcer
a reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. Ex. a waitress getting tips
Delayed Reinforcer
a reinforcer that is not given immediately after a certain behavior. Ex. Getting a weekly paycheck
Continuous Reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Ex. training an animal you give it a treat every time it does something right
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
Variable-Ratio Schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
Fixed-Interval Schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Variable-Interval Schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
Punishment
an event that decreases the behavior that it follows, the opposite of reinforcement
Positive Punishment
administering an aversive (bad) stimulus, such as a spanking
Negative Punishment
taking away a desirable stimulus, such as getting a time-out
Cognitive Map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
Latent Learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Insight
a sudden and often novel (new) realization of a solution to a problem. An "ah-ha" moment
Overjustification Effect
the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do and then losing interest in it
Intrinsic Motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
Extrinsic Motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
Observational Learning
learning by observing others, also called social learning
Modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Mirror Neurons
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy