Atom
smallest unit of matter that enters into chemical reactions
aqueous solution
water that contains dissolved substances
Molecule
a group of atoms bonded together
Nucleus
Center of an atom
First shell
holds 2 electrons
closest ring to the neucleus
How many electrons are in each energy level of Iodine?
2 in first level, 8 in second and third levels, 18 in fourth level, 17 in fifth level(53)
Protons
Positively charged subatomic particles found in the nucleus of an atom
Neutrons
the particles of the nucleus that have no charge
Atomic number
the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, which determines the chemical properties of an element
atomic weight/mass
total number of protons and neutrons in an atom
chemical element
substance composed of atoms that have the same atomic number and behave the same way chemically
CHON
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
Carbon
C
The number of naturally occurring elements
92
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons
electron shell
An energy level representing the distance of an electron from the nucleus of an atom.
valence
the number of missing or extra electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom
electron configuration
the arrangement of electrons in an atom
number of electrons in the innermost shell/lowest energy level
2
number of electrons that can be held in the second or third electron shell/energy levels
8
number of shells that can be held in the outermost shells (4th, 5th, or 6th energy levels)
18
valence shell
The outermost energy shell of an atom, containing the electrons involved in the chemical reactions of that atom.
What makes an atom stable?
A full outer layer of electrons
What makes an atom unstable?
when the outer (valence) shell contains a partial number of electrons
valence
combining capacity of an atom or molecule-the number of extra or missing electrons in its outermost electron shell
Compound
A substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds
chemical bond
the attractive force that holds atoms or ions together
What are the three atom bonds?
Covalent Strongest
Ionic
Hydrogen- weakest
Why do atoms form bonds?
To become more stable by having a full outer most energy level of 8
ionic bond
- Cations and anions. -One atom loses an electron and the other gains an electron. Transfer of electrons b/c An attraction between two ions with opposite electrical charges. The electrical attraction of the opposite charges holds the ions together. Dissol
covalent bond
Strongest chemical bond formed by two atoms sharing one or more pairs of electrons
Cations
positively charged ions
Anions
negatively charged ions
ion
charged atoms that have gained or lost electrons
hydrogen bond
Weakest bond between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to oxygen or nitrogen and another covalently bonded oxygen or nitrogen atom. a negative and positive side. like water With Hydrogen and others and usually happens in Polar molecule. Several hydrogen b
molecular weight
the sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule
chemical reaction
the process of making or breaking bonds between atoms
endergonic reaction
chemical reaction that absorbs more energy than it releases
mole
the molecular weight of a substance expressed in grams
exergonic reaction
chemical reaction that releases more energy than it absorbs
synthesis reaction
a reaction in which two or more atoms, ions, or molecules combine to form new and larger molecules
Anabolism
All synthesis reactions in a living organism; the building of complex organic molecules from simpler ones
decomposition reaction
a chemical reaction in which bonds are broken to produce smaller parts from a large molecule
catabolism
All decomposition reactions in a living organism; the breakdown of complex organic compounds into simpler ones.
exchange reaction
a chemical reaction that has both synthesis and decomposition components
reversible reaction
a chemical reaction in which the end product can revert to the original molecules
What type reaction is A + B---> AB?
Synthesis reaction
What type reaction is AB--->A + B?
Decomposition reaction
What type reaction is AB + CD --->AD + BC?
Exchange reaction
What type reaction is A + B <---->AB
reversible reaction
inorganic compounds
molecules that do not contain carbon atoms and are usually structurally simple,(e.g. water, carbon dioxide, many salts, acids, and bases)
organic compounds
molecules that always contain carbon and hydrogen and typically are structurally complex, held together mostly or entirely by covalent bonds
polar molecule
molecule with an unequal distribution of charge, resulting in the molecule having a positive end and a negative end
Solvent
A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances eg water
Properties of water
� inorganic
� polar molecule
� solvent
* temperature buffer/absorbs heat
dissociation/ionization
the separation of a compound into positive and negative ions in solution
solute
A substance that is dissolved in a solution. like sodium Na+ and Cl- chlorine. They are hydrophillic and have ionic or polar covenant bonds
Acid
compound that forms increse of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution.PRoton donor eg HCL = Hydrogen H+ + CLorine ion Cl-
Hydrogen
Is one proton and 1 electron
If you increase hydrogen by 10x this decreases PH by
1
Normal pH of blood
7.35-7.45
Outside this range - damages cells and tissues by:
Breaking chemical bonds
Changing shapes of proteins
Altering cellular functions
Base
A substance that decreases the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution. ex Sodium Hydroxide =sodiumion + hydroxide ion (oH-) The OH picks up hydrogen and makes waster and decreases the hydrogen concentration
Salt
substance that dissociates into cations and anions, neither of which is H+ or OH-
What is ph?
a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution
The more hydrogen ions in a solution
the more acidic the solution
The more hydroxide ions in a solution
the more basic or alkaline the solution is
pH range of acids
less than 7
pH range of bases
greater than 7
What is a neutral pH?
7
Is human blood acidic or basic?
slightly basic
Buffers
mixtures that can react with acids or bases to keep the pH within a particular range
Increasing _____ increases acidity.
H+
Increasing _______increases alkalinity.
OH-
Most organisms grow best with a pH in what range?
6.5-8.5
carbon skeleton
the chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule
functional groups
an arrangement of atoms in an organic molecule that is responsible for most of the chemical properties of that molecule. Different atoms that bond to carbon. Group of accessory molucles that add on to carbon chain or ring. eg amino, phosphate
What is -OH versus OH-
hydroxyl versus hydroxide
What type molecule contains and amino and carboxyl group?
Amino acid
Macromolecules
A very large organic molecule composed of many smaller molecules. Carbs, proteins, lipids
Which functional group is -OH?
alcohol or hydroxyl
What functional group is COH?
Aldehyde
What functional group is COOH?
carboxyl
What functional group is CH??
Methyl
What are the two functional groups in amino acids?
carboxyl and amino (COOH and NH?)
Polymers
formed by covalent bonding of many small molecules
What functional group is NH??
Amino
What functional group is SH?
Sulfhydryl
What functional group is PO??
Phosphate
monomers
small unit that can join together with other small units to form polymers
dehydration synthesis (condensation)
a chemical reaction in which a molecule of water is released
group made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms with hydrogen/oxygen concentration of 2:1
carbohydrate
Carbohydrates
Organic compounds which includes starches and sugars. Funcion is for energy, structure eg. glucose, galactose, fructose=simple sugars
How do monomers join?
dehydration synthesis or condensation reaction
What elements make up carbohydrates?
C,H, and O (CH?O)?
Glycosidic bonds
a type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate.
Three groups of carbohydrates
monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
simple sugars which contain 3-7 carbon atoms. eg Glucose, galactose, fructose
Isomers
Two different molecules that have the same chemical formula but different structures and properties
hydrolysis
Add water to break apart a large molecule. a decomposition reaction eg. to access glycogen storage must add water to break down eg. can break sucrose down by adding water then you have glucose and fructose
What is the chemical formula for disaccharides?
C??H??O??
Disaccharide
A double sugar, formed when two monosaccharides are joined by dehydration synthesis. They are broken down by hydrolysis. eg Lactose, maltose, sucrose
Disaccharide bond
glycosidic bond is a type of covanlent bond
glycosidic bond
bond formed by a dehydration reaction between two monosaccharides
What is the chemical formula for monosaccharides?
C?H??O?
Polysaccharides
large macromolecules formed from tens or hundreds of monosaccharides through dehydration synthesis eg Glycogen
Glycogen
Hydrolysis -adding water- is needed to break glucose apart to access the sugar. An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch. Long chains of glucose. Can get it when blood
What are oligosaccharides?
2-20 monosaccharides
What are polysaccharides?
tens or hundreds of monosaccharides joined through dehydration synthesis
List examples of polysaccharides.
Starch, glycogen, dextran, cellulose, chitin
Starch
storage form of glucose in plants
Cellulose cell wall
The rigid cell wall which surrounds plant cells.
Chitin
Polysaccharide found in fungal cell walls.
characteristics of lipids
* primary components of cell membranes
*consist of C,H, and O
* are nonpolar and insoluble in water
Examples of monosaccharides
glucose, fructose, galactose
examples of disaccharides
sucrose, lactose, maltose
Lipids
3 types. Glycerol, fatty acids, fats and oils, phospholipids. a major group of organic compounds are nonpolar molecules, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and have a much greater than 2:1 ratio between hydrogen and oxygen
Saturated fats
Solid at room temperature. Animal fats.
Glycerol with 2 saturated fatty acids.
Saturate fatty acids
All simple bonds between carbon. All carbons are full of hydrogen. No double bonds. Solid at room temp, animal fat
unsaturated fatty acid
A fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton. Usually a liquid oil a room temperature from plant source like olive oil
simple lipids
Fats or triglycerides
Contain glycerol and fatty acids; formed by dehydration synthesis
Phospholipids
Function: main componant of membrane. Has a lipid consisting of a glycerol bound to 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group. Similar to fats and oils
Glycerol
Structure for plasma membranes. Combines with fatty acids to make lipids.
Sterols
Function: stabilizes plasma membranes we maike ito on our own. Most bacteria doesn't have sterols in the plasma membrane. A type of lipid based on cholesterol; The cholesterol is found in our plasma membrane to stabilize. includes testosterone and estroge
Cholsterol
Important for cell membranes, precursor to make other steroids. Found in plasma membranes to stabalize it
proteins
organic molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and sometimes sulfur. Most diverse, it does everything. Are enzymes that speed up chemical reactions. Contractile protiens are muscle cells and cell membranes, recepterons, channels, po
contractile proteins in muscle
-Muscle cells
-Actin & myosin=contractile proteins
transport proteins
membrane proteins that help move substances across a cell membrane
What are the monomers of proteins?
20 amino acids
amino acid structure
Has a Peptide Bond.
a carboxyl group, amine group, and R group only Cystine and Methionine has sulfur
Cystine
An amino acid that has sulfur
If an organism has sulfur then it is a
protein
methionine synthase
Enzyme that catalyzes methionine to homocysteine, B12 (cobalamin) B12 deficiencies affect one another. ie) pernicious anemia (megaloblastic anemia)
Unsaturated fats
fats that have one or more double bonds
enzymes
Proteins that speed up chemical reactions
cis configuration
H atoms are on the same side of the double bond
trans configuration
H atoms are on opposite sides of the double bond
amino acids
a simple organic compound containing both a carboxyl (�COOH) and an amino (�NH2) group. building blocks of proteins. 20 different amino acids
complex lipids
membranes are made of phospholipids
contain phosphorus, nitrogen, or sulfur in addition to the C,H,and O found in simple lipids
Stereoisomers
two molecules consisting of the same atoms, arranged in the same manner but differing in their relative positions; mirror images; also called D-isomer and L-isomer
characteristics of steroids
four interconnected carbon rings with an -OH group attached to one ring
part of membranes
characteristics of proteins
*essential in cell structure and function
*enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions
*transporter proteins move chemicals across membranes
*flagella are made of protein
*some bacterial toxins are proteins
Denaturation
A process in which a protein unravels, losing its specific structure and hence function; can be caused by changes in pH or salt concentration or by high temperature.
peptide bond
The chemical bond that forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid OR bonds between amino acids, formed by dehydration synthesis
What is the quatenary structure of a protein?
two or more individual polypeptide chains that operate as a single functional unit
What is the primary structure of a protein?
sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
What is the secondary structure of protein?
forms structural proteins - helix and pleated sheets, three polypeptide strands
Nucleotide
A building block of DNA, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group
What is the tertiary structure of a protein?
the overall three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide chain, when the helix folds irregularly, forming disulfide bridges, hydrogen bonds, and ionic bonds between amino acids in the chain. Starts to get 3 D shape. Some are fully functional now
Purines
Bases with a double-ring structure.
Adenine and Guanine
Pyrimidines
Bases with a single-ring structure.
thymine, cytosine and uracil
nucleoside
base + sugar (no phosphate)
What two functional groups are present in all amino acid?
COOH and NH2 (carboxyl and amino groups)
double helix
two strands of nucleotides wound about each other; structure of DNA
What bases are paired together in DNA double helix?
Adenine and Thymine are always paired
Guanine and Cytosine are always paired
Difference between DNA and RNA?
DNA is double stranded and RNA is single stranded
Thymine is a pyrimidine base in DNA, whereas it is replaced by Uracil in RNA
There is one type of DNA but 3 types of RNA-messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal (rRNA), and transfer (tRNA)
DNA sugar is deoxyribose
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
principal energy-carrying molecule of all cells
What does ATP consist of?
adenosine unit (adenine and ribose)
three phosphate groups
Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)
The substance formed when ATP is hydrolyzed and energy is released.
what is the most abundant substance in cells?
water
conjugated proteins
amino acids combined with inorganic or other organic compounds
Atomic number and weight of hydrogen
1, 1
Atomic symbol for hydrogen
H
Which can provide more energy for a cell: ATP or ADP?
ATP
Atomic number and weight of carbon
6,12
Atomic symbol for carbon
C
What are 3 examples of conjugated proteins?
glycoproteins, nucleoproteins, and lipoproteins
What are the building blocks of nucleic acids?
nucleotides
What do nucleotides consist of?
nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, phosphate group
Nucleosides consist of
Pentose
Nitrogen-containing base
Atomic number and weight of nitrogen
7,14
Atomic symbol for nitrogen
N
Atomic number and weight of oxygen
8,16
Atomic symbol for oxygen
O
Atomic number and weight of Sodium
11, 23
Atomic symbol for sodium
Na
Atomic number and weight of magnesium
12,24
Atomic symbol for magnesium
Mg
Phosphorus-atomic number and weight
15,31
Phosphorus-symbol
P
Sulfur-atomic number and weight
16,32
Sulfur symbol
S
Chlorine-atomic number and weight
17,35
Chlorine-symbol
Cl- has 17 protons and 17 electrons. Its negative
Potassium-atomic number and weight
19,39
Potassium symbol
K
Calcium-atomic number and weight
20,40
Calcium symbol
Ca
Iron-atomic number and weight
26,56
Iron-symbol
Fe
Iodine-atomic number and weight
53,127
Iodine symbol
I
What are the 6 most common elements in living things?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulfur (CHNOPS)
What is matter?
Anything that has mass and takes up space
What is chemistry?
the study of interactions between atoms and molecules
2 of the same atoms bonded together
molecules (H?, N?, O?, Cl?, etc)
2 or more different atoms bonded together
compound (H?O, CO?, Ca??Cl??, etc)
What do the top and bottom numbers represent in ?��C?
12 is atomic weight and 6 is the atomic number
What determines the atomic weight of an atom?
Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
Which 2 parts of an atom are equal in number?
protons and electrons
What do you have when there are more neutrons than protons in the nucleus?
isotope
Ionic bonds are designated by what?
positive and negative symbols such as Na?Cl??
H?O, CO?, and C?H??O? are examples of what type bond?
covalent bond
When an atom loses an electron, it becomes
positively charged or cation
When an atom gains an electron it becomes
negatively charged or anion
How many electrons are in each energy level of hydrogen?
1 in first level
How many electrons are in each energy level of carbon?
2 in first level, 4 in second level (6), 6 protons make it a carbon atom
How many electrons are in each energy level of nitrogen?
2 in first level, 5 in second level (7)
How many electrons are in each energy level of oxygen?
2 in first level, 6 in second level (8)
How many electrons are in each energy level of sodium?
2 in first level, 8 in second level, 1 in third level
How many electrons are in each energy level of magnesium?
2 in first level, 8 in second level, 2 in third level
How many electrons are in each energy level of phosphorus?
2 in first level, 8 in second level, 5 in third level (15)
How many electrons are in each energy level of sulfur?
2 in first level, 8 in second level, 6 in third level (16)
How many electrons are in each energy level of chlorine?
2 in first level, 8 in second level, 7 in third level (17)
How many electrons are in each energy level of potassium?
2 in first level, 8 in second level, 8 in third level, 1 in fourth level (19)
How many electrons are in each energy level of calcium?
2 in first level, 8 in second level, 8 in third level, 2 in fourth level (20)
How many electrons are in each energy level of iron?
2 in first level, 8 in second level, 8 in third level, 8 in fourth level (26)
How many electrons are in each energy level of Iodine?
2 in first level, 8 in second and third levels, 18 in fourth, fifth and sixth levels, and 2 in 7th level (74)
double covalent bond
a bond in which two atoms share two pairs or a total of 4 electrons
What type bond is O? an example of?
double covalent bond because each oxygen atom shares 2 of it's valence electrons
triple covalent bond
a bond formed by sharing three pairs or 6 total electrons
single covalent bond
a bond formed when two atoms share a pair of electrons
N? is an example of what type bond?
triple covalent
H? is an example of what type bond?
single covalent
molecular weight (MW)
the sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a molecule
What is the molecular weight of CO??
44 grams (1C= 1x12=12, 2O=2x16=32, 12+32=44 grams)
What are the types of chemical reactions?
synthesis, decomposition, exchange
hydrolysis reaction
Water breaks apart a large molecule. A chemical reaction that breaks apart a larger molecule by adding a molecule of water
dehydration synthesis
A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule.
primary structure of protein
peptide bonds,
secondary structure
Either an alpha helix or beta pleated sheet.
Peptide and hydrogen bonds
The tertiary structure
3D shape of a protein. both the alpha helix and Beta pleated fold on each other. Forms Disulfide bridges , peptide bonds and hydrogen bonds. Disulfide bridges which are short covalent bonds and some ionic bonds. Most proteins are formed here
disulfide bridges
covalent bonds that may further reinforce the shape of a protein
quarternary structure
The fourth level of protein structure; the shape resulting from the association of two or more polypeptide subunits. Hydrogen bond that can be broken by heat, ph extremes, to disrupt hydrogen and ionic bonds
What are 3 organic compounds
carbohydrates, lipids (phospholipids, fat oil, sterols), proteins
Gram stain
A method for the differential staining of bacteria that involves fixing the bacterial cells to a slide and staining with crystal violet and iodine, then washing with alcohol, and counterstaining with safranin. Results in gram-positive bacteria retaining t
Hans Christian Gram
developed first gram stain
Gram positive cells
have multiple layers of peptidoglycan that help retain the crystal violet stain.
-Purple
gram negative
have a cell wall that contains less peptidoglycan than the cell wall of gram-positive bacteria. Gram-negative bacteria are often more toxic than gram-positive bacteria.
-Pink
crystal violet stain
Primary stain, gets stuck in the cell wall (peptidoglycan
Iodine (mordant)
The second step in the Gram stain is to apply ________ which is the ________.
Cells remain purple
alcohol/acetone
Decolorizer, disolves the outer membrane
the critical step in differentiating gram-positive cells from gram-negative cells?
-gram + remain purple and
gram - becomes colorless
counterstain - safranin
Color of Gram-Positive Cells: remain PURPLE
Color of Gram- Negative Cells: change RED or Pink
Gram-positive bacteria
Are bacteria that take up and retain the crystal violet and resist alcohol decolonization. eg
Streptococcus and
Staph
Streptococcus
Gram Positive Cocci arranged in chains
Staphylococcus
a genus of gram-positive bacteria in clusters that are potential pathogens, causing local lesions and serious opportunistic infections
Gram-negative bacteria
E. Coli and Salmonella
Bacteria that have a thin peptidoglycan cell wall covered by an outer plasma membrane. They stain very lightly (pink) in Gram stain.
E. coli
Escherichia coli is gram negative and in the bowel
Salmonella
Gram negative
a bacterium that occurs mainly in the intestine, especially a serotype causing food poisoning.
Gram stain
Staining method 1 crystal violet dye stains peptidoglycan layer so + and negative r purple 2. Iodine to crosslink due both r purple 3. Alcohol dissolve membrane so only positive is purple bec lots of cross links and peptidoglycafan. 4 safranin positive pu
Alcohol functional group
Hydroxyl (OH)
water
A compound is a molecule that contains two or more kinds of atoms
Water: two atoms of hydrogen, one atom of oxygen
H2O
polar covalent bond
A covalent bond in which electrons are not shared equally
Hydrogen bonds
Hydrogen bonds form when a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to an O or N atom is attracted to another N or O atom in another molecule.
-Happens in polar molecules like water. Water sticks to themself very well. Anytime Hydrogen is with Nitrogen, Ox
Hydrogen bonding in water
Polarity invites extensive hydrogen bonding between water molecules
Organic compounds contain
carbon and hydrogen atoms
Carbon bonds with
different types of atoms with different types
hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur, and nitrogen
funtional group
a specific arrangement of atoms in an organic compund that is capable of certain chemical reactions
The -OH functional group causes alcohols to be
polar
OH
ethanol
A polar molecule contains
an unequal distribution of charges.
a region of positive charge and a region of negative charge
hydrogen bonds absorb
heat and is a temperature buffer like wet sand is cool but the dry sand is too hot
sodium chloride crystal
The sodium ion dissolves in water. Chloride ion dissolves in water
sodium ion (Na+)
A sodium atom that carries a positive charge because it has lost one electron.
chloride ion (Cl-)
A chlorine atom that carries a negative charge because it has gained one electron.
Water acts as a solvent
lots of compounds can be dissolved in it including sodium chloride because water is polar and nacl is polar so anythign that is polar can be dissolved in water.
Water is a polar molecule because
The O and H ends of the molecule have different charge, allowing the O of one molecule to attract the H of a nearby molecule
ph
potential hydrogen; scale to indicate degree of acidity or alkalinity
Organic compounds are
compounds containing carbon
CHON
A carbon skeleton
The chain of carbon atoms that forms the structural backbone of an organic molecule.
Aldehyde
An organic molecule with a carbonyl group located at the end of the carbon skeleton.
Polysacchride
Ketone
Amino group (-NH2)
Protiens
a chemical group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms
NH2
carboxl group
-very important acid and functional group
(-cooh) consists of both an oxygen atom and a hydroxyl group attached to a carbon atom.
amino group and carboxyl group
Amino acids have these TWO groups attached to a central carbon atom
Carbo
Carbon
hydrate
compound that has water chemically attached to its ions and written into its chemical formula
Monosaccharides are
Made with the same molecule- simple sugars with 3 to 7 carbon atoms
the most common is glucose and deoxyribose
Deoxyribose sugar
the simple sugar in DNA that is covalently bonded to both a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base
Lipids are
non-polar molecules
-have no polarity and are not dissolveable in water.
-Insolvable in water because hydrophobic
unsaturated fats
A fat that is liquid at room temperature and found in vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds.
It has double bonds and Trans isomer
-carbon is missing 2 hydrogens so its is un saturated. The kink causes more distance so it is liquid or gas
trans isomer
an isomer of an alkene in which similar groups in the double bond are on opposite sides
saturated fats
no double bonds, solid at room temperature. Every carbon is saturated with a hydrogen. It easily passes through blood vessels and gathers in the blood vessels and causes atherosclerosis
structural formulas of simple lipids
Has two saturated fats and 1 unstaturated fat. Its a triglyceride. Has a Glycerol backbone as the base.
Phopholipids
They serve as a major structural component of most biological membranes. They form the lipid bilayer in cell membranes of organisms.
Steroid group
four carbon rings with an OH group
Cholesterol (steroid lipid)
Protein structure
primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
primary protein structure
sequence of a chain of amino acids
secondary protien structure
amino acid chain folds and coils in a helix or pleated sheet
-glucose, fructose, galactose
tertiary structure
-Hydrogen bond
alpha helix and pleated
-This occurs when the helix or sheet folds irregularly forming sidulfide bridges, hydrogen bonds, and ionic bons between amino acids in the chain
the R groups of the amino acids making up the chain.
quartenary structure
-contains clusters of more than 1 polypeptide chain all linked together into 1 giant molecule
How to compare the strength of pH is based on...
a power of 11-2 is 10
1-3 is 10x10 = 100
1 to 4 is 1000
1 to 5 10,000
ph 4 vs 8. 4 to 8 is 4 spaces so put 1 and 4 zeros and it is 10,000
Nitrogenous bases in DNA
adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine
what two
functional groups are in all amino acids
In order for an amide linkage (-CONH-), you would require a carboxyl (-COOH) group to react with an amino group (-NHR). Hence, all amino acids have a carboxul and amino group in order for them to form long continuous chains of proteins.
Neucleotide
subunit of DNA consisting of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
DNA vs RNA
RNA contains ribose instead of deoxyribose, RNA contains uracil instead of thymine like DNA, RNA is single-stranded rather than double-stranded like DNA, RNA is smaller than DNA, RNA anywhere but DNA in nucleus or protected area