Biology L112 Review

Glycolysis and Fermentation

ATP is made during these processes by substrate level phosphorylation.

Proteins

Most diverse molecules in terms of structure and types of roles in cells. Polymers of nucleic acids.

Glycoproteins

Provide a "fingerprint" for the cell so that it can be recognized by other cells.

Phosphodiester Bonds

Join nucleotides together to make a nucleic acid strand.

NADH and FADH2

Provide electrons to the electron transfer system. (Oxidative Phosphorylation)

Anaerobic

Does not require oxygen.

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The (Net) ATP are formed by substrate level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation from the process of Glycolysis

Glycogen

Found in large quantities in liver and muscle cells.

O2 and Glucose

Converted to water and carbon dioxide during the formation of cellular energy.

Rough ER > Golgi Complex > vesicle > plasma membrane

The path a secretory protein synthesized on a ribosome attached to the rough ER would follow in the endomembrane system.

Membrane Surface Receptors

Signal proteins bind to these, generating a large cascade of reactions which results in the activatin of specific genes.

Microtubules

Primarily responsible for the movement of chromosomes during cell division.

Antabuse

Binds competitively to the active site of the enzyme.

NADH

Product of Glycolysis, Pyruvate oxidation, and the citric acid cycle.

Lactic Acid and Alcoholic Fermentation

Start with the same reactants and produce the same number of ATP.

Bacteria

Do not depend on mitochondria to survive.

Cristae

Greatly increase the surface area of Mitochondrion.

Pyruvate Oxidation and Citric Acid Cycle

The stages which CO2 is released during cellular respiration.

RNA Molecules

Found as a single strand with some folds and twists where the intra-strand bonds with itself to make some double-helical regions.

Glycosidic Bond

The linkage commonly found between subunits in a chain of monosaccharides.

Nucleolus

Pre-ribosomes are assembled here.

Water

Oxygen acts as a final electron acceptor in respiration and is ultimately converted into this.

Photosynthesis

Most life on Earth depend on this process that combines water and carbon dioxide to make carbon-based compounds.

Lipids

Members of this group are primarily nonpolar and thus water-insoluble.

Chaperonins

Assist with protein folding.

Chemiosmosis

The synthesis of ATP by ATP synthase, using a proton gradient.

Peptide Bond

The linkage commonly found between amino acids in a chain of amino acids.

Phospholipids

Main structural components of biological membranes.

O2 in Cellular Respiration

Converted to H2O.

Cholesterol (Membrane sterols)

Function in animal cell membranes to maintain membrane fluidity and shape.

Glycolysis

-In the cytoplasm
-Anaerobic Reaction
-Uses chemical energy to oxidize 6-C Glucose to 2 3-C Pyruvate.
-Net: 2 pyruvates + 2ATP + 2NADH

Transition Phase

-Pyruvate enters mitochondrial matrix.
-Oxidization reaction (H removed from pyruvate, NAD+ ? 2 NADH) 3-C Pyruvate converted to 2-C Acetyl Group + C02 2 times.
-Net: 2 Acetyl Groups + 2 CO2+ 2 NADH per glucose

Citric Acid Cycle

-In the Matrix of mitochondria.
-The cycle oxidizes organic fuel derived from pyruvate, generating 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH2 per turn.
-Extracts the energy of sugar by breaking the pyruvate molecules all the way down to CO2.
-Net: 4CO2, 2ATP, 6NADH,2FADH

Fermentation

An anaerobic process in which energy can be released from glucose even though oxygen is not available

Dehydration Reaction

This reaction makes monomers join together to form polymers.

Disaccharides

Formed with a glycosidic bond that joins two monomers. - Example: Lactose, sucrose, maltose

Primary Protein Structure

Unique sequence of amino acids in a straight chain.

Secondary Protein Structure

Folds into Alpha Helix and Beta Pleated Sheets.

Tertiary Protein Structure

Folds into 3D structure, critical to enzyme structure and function

Quaternary Protein Structure

Multiple polypeptide chains that fit together to form a functional protein.

Nucleotides

-Phosphate group
-Sugar
-Nitrogenous Base (A, T, C, G, U)
-Combine to form nucleic acids (DNA/RNA)

Double Helix

Two strands of DNA.

(A) pairs with (T/U), (C) pairs with (G)

These strands pair together in DNA/RNA.

Hydrogen Bonds

Connect complimentary nitrogenous bases to form DNA/RNA.

Nucleus

-Contains DNA.
-Pores offer selective passage in and out of nucleus.
- Nucleolus contains rRNA
-Plant and animal cells.

Nucleosome

-DNA is condensed by being wrapped around 8 proteins called histones.
-DNA is negatively charged. Histones are positively charged.
-Used to condense DNA for cell replication!

Ribosomes

-Produce proteins.
-Some are 'free' in which the float freely in the cytoplasm
-Others are bound by theRough Endoplasmic Reticulum
-In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

-Directly connected to the Nucleus.
-Primarily synthesizes proteins by use of ribosomes.
-Transport vesicles for proteins.
-Plant and animal cells.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

-Directly connected to Rough ER.
-Primarily synthesizes lipids.
-Does not contain surface ribosomes, hence smooth.
-Plant and Animal Cells.

Golgi Complex

-Receives proteins from Rough ER through transport vesicles
-Refines, stores, and ships chemical products of the cell.
-Sends them out via secretory vesicles, either to other parts of the same cell or through exocytosis to other parts of the cell
-Plant a

Lysosomes

-Contains digestive enzymes that can break down large molecules.
-Breaks down polysaccharides, proteins, fats and nucleic acids.
-Waste/Digestive center of cell.
-In animal cells, rarely plant cells.

Centrioles

-Made up of microtubules.
-Used to move chromosomes during cell replication
-Also can move other organelles during interphase of the cell.

Peroxisomes

-Detoxifies the cell.
-Contains enzymes for the break down of fatty acids, drugs, and alcohol.
-Many seen in Liver cells, as the liver is the detoxifying organ!
-Plant and animal cells.

Mitochondria

-"Powerhouse" of the cell.
-Primary function is to create ATP from food during Cellular Respiration.
-Break down glucose to generate ATP for use in the cell.
-Exist in animal and plant cells!!

Chloroplasts

-Contain chlorophyll (green pigment).
-Main function is to create sugars from sunlight during photosynthesis.
-Exist in plant cells.

Endosymbiotic Theory

-States that mitochondria and chloroplasts were once individual single celled organisms.
-Evidence is that Mitochondria and Chloroplasts have their own DNA.
-Eukaryotic cells engulfed these prokaryotic cells and formed a mutualistic relationship.

Central Vacuole

-Stores nutrients and absorbs water.
-Plant cells.
-Small vacuoles exist in Animal cells but are very rare.

Passive Transport

Diffusion, osmosis. No protein needed. Small, non-charged molecules.

Facilitated Diffusion

Using Channel proteins and Carrier proteins for transport.

Active Transport

Utilizing ATP to transport charged molecules across the membrane. (Movement of a substance from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration)

Bulk Transport

Moving large molecules like polysaccharides and proteins across the membrane; Utilizes vesicles.

Exocytosis

Transport vesicles fuse with membrane and release contents outside the cell.

Endocytosis

Bring molecules into the cell by forming transport vesicles from the membrane. Has three forms.

Phagocytosis

Cell engulfs a particle in a vacuole.

Pinocytosis

Tiny molecules taken in when extracellular fluid is encased by vesicles.

Receptor-mediated

Binding triggers vesicle formation.