active voice
the opposite of passive voice; essentially any sentence with an active verb
ad hominem
an attack on the person rather than the issues at hand (a common fallacy)
alliteration
the repetition of a phonetic sound at the beginning of several words in a sentence
allusion
a reference that recalls another work, another time in history, another famous person, and so forth
anadiplosis
a wonderful technique of repetition in which the last word of the clause begins the next clause, creating a connection of ideas important to the author's purpose in some way
analogy
a term that signifies a relational comparison of or similarity between two objects or ideas
anaphora
the deliberate repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of several successive poetic lines, prose sentences, clauses, or paragraphs
anastrophe
the reversal of the natural order of words in a sentence or line of poetry
antithesis
an observation or claim that is in opposition to your claim or an author's claim
aphorism
a brief statement of an opinion or elemental truth
apostrophe
prayer-like, this is a direct address to someone who is not present, to a deity or muse, or to some other power
appositive
also called a noun phrase, this modifies the noun next to it
argument from ignorance
an argument stating that something is true because it has never been proven false
asyndeton
the deliberate omission of conjunctions from a series of related independent clauses
bandwagon
also called vox populi, this argument is the "everyone's doing it" fallacy
begging the question
this argument occurs when the speaker states a claim that includes a word or phrase that needs to be defined before the argument can proceed
cause and effect
another fallacy, this is also known as post hoc ergo propter hoc (Latin for "after this, therefore because of this"), and it falls under the general umbrella of a causality fallacy or false cause
chiasmus
this is an ABBA syntactical structure rather than the more common parallel ABAB structure
complex sentence
a sentence structure that is a combination of a dependent clause and an independent clause
compound sentence
a sentence structure made up of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction
compound-complex sentence
a combination of a compound and a complex sentence
connotation
the associations or moods that accompany a word
declarative sentence
a basic statement or an assertion; the most common type of sentence
deductive
a form of logical argumentation that uses claims or premises, where the author assumes that you will accept the claims as true and that you will then deduce the correct conclusion from the accepted premises at the outset
denotation
the opposite of connotation; quite literally the dictionary meaning of a word
dependent clause
this clause contains a noun and a verb but is set up with a subordinate conjunction, which makes the clause an incomplete thought
dialect
a regional speech pattern; the way people talk in different parts of the world
diction
the particular words an author uses in an essay
distractor
a possible answer that seems to be correct, but is either wrong or is not as good as other answers
ellipsis
three dots that indicate words have been left out of a quotation; they also can be used to create suspense
epanalepsis
like chiasmus, this figure repeats the opening word or phrase at the end of the sentence to emphasize a statement or idea, but it is not an ABBA reversal
epistrophe
a minor device, this is the ending of a series of lines, phrases, clauses, or sentences with the same word or words
ethos
one of the fundamental strategies of argumentation identified by Aristotle; basically an appeal to credibility
etymology
the study of the origin of words and their historical uses
euphemism
to use a safer or nicer word for something others find inappropriate or unappealing
exclamatory sentence
a sentence that conveys excitement or force
fallacy
a failure of logical reasoning
false analogy
an argument using an inappropriate metaphor
false dilemma
also known as an either/or fallacy; the suggestion is made in the argument that the problem or debate only has two solutions; can also be called the fallacy of the excluded middle
gerund
a verb ending in "ing" that serves as a noun
hyperbole
an exaggeration, fairly common in nonfiction prose arguments, that bolsters an argument
imagery
any time one of the five senses (visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory) is evoked by what you have read, you have encountered this
imperative sentence
a command
independent clause
a clause that can stand alone as a sentence; it must have a noun and a verb (subject and predicate)
inductive
a form of logical argumentation that requires the use of examples
infinitive
the word "to" plus a verb, usually functioning as a noun, and often as a predicate in a sentence
interrogative sentence
a question
irony
the use of words to express something other than and often the opposite of the literal meaning
jargon
a pattern of speech and vocabulary associated with a particular group of people
juxtaposition
making one idea more dramatic by placing it next to its opposite
logos
an appeal to reason; one of the fundamental strategies of argumentation identified by Aristotle
loose sentence
an independent clause followed by all sorts of debris, usually dependent clauses
malapropism
a wonderful form of word play in which one word is mistakenly substituted for another that sounds similar
metaphor
a figure of speech in which what is unknown is compared to something that is known in order to better gauge its importance
metonymy
a minor figure of speech in which the name of one thing is substituted for another with which it is closely associated
non sequitur
this literally means "it does not follow"; this is an argument by misdirection and is logically irrelevant
object
a noun toward which thought, feeling, or action is directed
onomatopoeia
a minor figure of speech in which a sound imitates the thing or action associated with it
oxymoron
two words that together create a sense of opposition
paradox
a major figure of speech in rhetorical analysis that seeks to create a mental discontinuity, which then forces the reader to pause and seek clarity
parallel syntax (or parallelism)
a pattern of speech or language that creates a rhythm of repetition often combined with some other language of repetition
parentheticals
phrases, sentences, and words inside parentheses ( )
participle
a verbal (expressing action or a state of being) that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed
passive voice
the opposite of active voice; in this voice, something happens to someone
pathos
an appeal to emotion; one of the fundamental strategies of argumentation identified by Aristotle
periodic sentence
a sentence with several dependent clauses that precede the independent clause
personification
giving human attributes to non-human things
phrase
a grouping of words that define or clarity; a group of words that is not a sentence because there is no verb
point of view
the perspective from which the writer chooses to present his or her story (fiction) or essay (nonfiction)
poisoning the well
a person or character is introduced with language that suggests that he is not at all reliable before the listener/reader knows anything about him
polysyndeton
the use of consecutive coordinating conjunctions even when they are not needed
predicate
the formal term for the verb that conveys the meaning or carries the action of the sentence
predicate adjective
an adjective that follows a linking verb and modifies the subject of the sentence
predicate nominative
a noun or pronoun that uses a linking verb to unite, describe, or rename the noun in the subject of the sentence
premise
another word for a claim; a statement of truth, at least to the person making the argument
prompt
in essay questions, this has two definitions: the correct one and the common one; the correct one is that this is the paragraph or language that defines the essay task (doesn't include the passage itself); the common definition of this is one you will hear teachers and consultants use to refer to any and all parts of an essay question
pun
a play on words; in an argument, this usually calls humorous attention to a particular point
red herring
an argument that distracts the reader by raising issues irrelevant to the case
repetition
a fundamental form of rhetorical stress that calls the reader's attention to a particular word, phrase, or image for emphasis of meaning
rhetorical question
a question whose answer is assumed, this is designed to force the reader to respond in a predetermined manner and is a significant tool in the study of rhetoric
rhetorical shift
this occurs when the author of an essay significantly alters his or her diction, syntax, or both
simile
a crucial figure of speech in an argument when what is unknown is compared to something that is known using the word "like," or "as," or "than" in order to better perceive its importance
simple sentence
an independent clause; has a subject and a verb, and that's pretty much it
slippery slope (also called domino theory)
this fallacy of argumentation argues that one thing inevitably leads to another
stem
in the multiple-choice section, this is the question you are asked to complete with the given possible answers
straw man
this occurs when a person engaging in an argument defines his opponent's position when the opponent is not present and defines it in a manner that is easy to attack
subject
the formal term for the noun that is the basic focus of the sentence; it is who or what is doing the action in the sentence
subordinate conjunction
a conjunction that makes an independent clause into a dependent clause
syllogism
in its basic form, this is a three-part argument construction in which two premises lead to a truth
synecdoche
a minor figure of speech in which a part is used for the whole
syntax
the study of the rules of grammar that define the formation of sentences
synthesis
to unite or synthesize a variety of sources to achieve a common end
theme
the basic message or meaning conveyed through elements of character and conflict; appears often in literature and is paralleled in nonfiction prose by an argument's thesis
thesis
the writer's statement of purpose; the focal intent of the essay
tricolon
a sentence with three equally distinct and equally long parts
understatement
this creates exaggeration by showing restraint; it is the opposite of hyperbole
zeugma
a minor device in which two or more elements in a sentence are tied together by the same verb or noun; these are especially acute if the noun or verb does not have the exact same meaning in both parts of the sentence