casual theories
Theories about the causes of one's own feelings and behaviors; often we learn such theories from our culture (e.g., "absence makes the heart grow fonder")
downward social comparison
comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability
extrinsic motivation
the desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting
fixed mindset
the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change
growth mindset
the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow
implementation intentions
people's specific plans about where, when, and how they will fulfill a goal
impression management
the attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen
independent view of the self
a way of defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people
Ingratiation
the process whereby people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likable to another person, often of higher status
interdependent view of the self
a way of defining oneself in terms of one's relationships to other people, recognizing that one's behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others
intrinsic motivation
the desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures
Introspection
the process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives
misattribution of arousal
the process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do
overjustification effect
the tendency for people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons
performance-contingent rewards
rewards that are based on how well we perform a task
self-awareness theory
the idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values
self-concept
the overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes
self-control
the ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve long-term goals.
self-handicapping
the strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves
self-perception theory
The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs
social comparison theory
The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people
social tuning
the process whereby people adopt another person's attitudes
task-contingent rewards
rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done
two-factor theory of emotion
the idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it
upward social comparison
comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability
affectively based attitude
an attitude based more on people's feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object
attitude accessibility
The strength of the association between an attitude object and a person's evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which people can report how they feel about the object
attitude inoculation
making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position
Attitudes
evaluations of people, objects, and ideas
behaviorally based attitude
an attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an object
Central Route to Persuasion
the case in which people have both the ability and the motivation to elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments presented
classical conditioning
the phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus
cognitively based attitude
an attitude based primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object
elaboration likelihood model
A model explaining two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: centrally, when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication, and peripherally, when people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by surface characteristics
explicit attitudes
attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report
Fear-Arousing Communication
persuasive message that attempts to change people's attitudes by arousing their fears
Heuristic-Systematic Model of Persuasion
An explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: either systematically processing the merits of the arguments or using mental shortcuts or heuristics
implicit attitudes
attitudes that exist outside of conscious awareness
operant conditioning
the phenomenon whereby behaviors we freely choose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by a reward or punishment
peripheral route persuasion
The case in which people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by more superficial cues
persuasive communication
a message advocating a particular side of an issue
reactance theory
the idea that when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of resistance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the prohibited behavior
subliminal messages
Words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence people's judgments, attitudes, and behaviors
Theory of Planned Behavior
the idea that people's intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control
Yale Attitude Change Approach
The study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on the source of the communication, the nature of the communication, and the nature of the audience
Conformity
A change in one's behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people
descriptive norms
People's perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others
door-in-the-face technique
social influence strategy in which first asking people for a large request that they will probably refuse makes them more likely to agree later to a second, smaller request
foot-in-the-door technique
social influence strategy in which getting people to agree first to a small request makes them more likely to agree later to a second, larger request
idiosyncrasy credits
the tolerance a person earns, over time, by conforming to group norms; if enough credits are earned, the person can, on occasion, deviate from the group without retribution
informational social influence
relying on other people as a source of information to guide our behavior; we conform because we believe that others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is correct and can help us choose an appropriate course of action
injunctive norms
people's perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others
minority influence
the case where a minority of group members influences the behavior or beliefs of the majority
normative social influence
going along with what other people do in order to be liked and accepted by them; we publicly conform with the group's beliefs and behaviors but do not always privately accept them
Obedience
A change in one's behavior due to the direct influence of an authority figure
private acceptance
conforming to other people's behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right
Propaganda
a deliberate, systematic attempt to advance a cause by manipulating mass attitudes and behaviors, often through misleading or emotionally charged information
public compliance
conforming to other people's behavior publicly without necessarily believing in what the other people are doing or saying
social impact theory
the idea that conforming to social influence depends on the group's importance, immediacy, and the number of people in the group
social norms
The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members
contingency theory of leadership
the idea that the effectiveness of a leader depends both on how task oriented or relationship oriented the leader is and on the amount of control the leader has over the group
Deindividuation
the loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people can't be identified (such as when they are in a crowd)
Great Person Theory
the idea that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation
Group
two or more people who interact and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to influence each other
group cohesiveness
qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking between members
group polarization
the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than any member would have made alone
Groupthink
a kind of decision process in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner
Integration Solution
a solution to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests; each side concedes the most on issues that are unimportant to it but important to the other side
negotiation
A form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict in which offers and counteroffers are made and a solution occurs only when both parties agree
process loss
any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving
relationship-oriented leaders
leaders who are concerned more with workers' feelings and relationships
social dilemma
a conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, have harmful effects on everyone
social facilitation
when people are in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated, the tendency to perform better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks
social loafing
when people are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated, the tendency to perform worse on simple or unimportant tasks but better on complex or important tasks
social roles
shared expectations in a group about how particular people are supposed to behave
task-oriented leaders
leaders who are concerned more with getting the job done than with workers' feelings and relationships
Transactional Leaders
leaders who set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them
transactive memory
the combined memory of a group that is more efficient than the memory of the individual members
tit-for-tat strategy
A means of encouraging cooperation by at first acting cooperatively but then always responding the way your opponent did (cooperatively or competitively) on the previous trial
transformational leaders
leaders who inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals