criminological theory
The explanation of criminal behavior, as well as the behavior of police, attorneys, prosecutors, judges, correctional personnel, victims, and other actors in the criminal justice process.
classical theory
A product of the Enlightenment, based on the assumption that people exercise free will and are thus completely responsible for their actions. In classical theory, human behavior, including criminal behavior, is motivated by a hedonistic rationality, in wh
utility
The principle that a policy should provide "the greatest happiness shared by the greatest number.
social contract
An imaginary agreement to sacrifice the minimum amount of liberty necessary to prevent anarchy and chaos.
general deterrence
The prevention of people in general or society at large from engaging in crime by punishing specific individuals and making examples of them.
neoclassical theory
A modification of classical theory in which it was conceded that certain factors, such as insanity, might inhibit the exercise of free will.
biological inferiority
According to biological theories, a criminal's innate physiological makeup produces certain physical or genetic characteristics that distinguish criminals from noncriminals.
criminal anthropology
The study of "criminal" human beings.
atavist
A person who reverts to a savage type.
limbic system
A structure surrounding the brain stem that, in part, controls the life functions of heartbeat, breathing, and sleep. It also is believed to moderate expressions of violence; such emotions as anger, rage, and fear; and sexual response.
psychopaths, sociopaths, or antisocial personalities
Persons characterized by no sense of guilt, no subjective conscience, and no sense of right and wrong. They have difficulty in forming relationships with other people; they cannot empathize with other people.
collective conscience
The general sense of morality of the times.
Chicago School
A group of sociologists at the University of Chicago who assumed in their research that delinquent behavior was a product of social disorganization.
social disorganization
The condition in which the usual controls over delinquents are largely absent, delinquent behavior is often approved of by parents and neighbors, there are many opportunities for delinquent behavior, and there is little encouragement, training, or opportu
anomie
For Merton, the contradiction between the cultural goal of achieving wealth and the social structure's inability to provide legitimate institutional means for achieving the goal. For Cohen, it is caused by the inability of juveniles to achieve status amon
imitation or modeling
A means by which a person can learn new responses by observing others without performing any overt act or receiving direct reinforcement or reward.
differential association
Sutherland's theory that persons who become criminal do so because of contacts with criminal patterns and isolation from anticriminal patterns.
learning theory
A theory that explains criminal behavior and its prevention with the concepts of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, punishment, and modeling or imitation.
positive reinforcement
The presentation of a stimulus that increases or maintains a response.
negative reinforcement
The removal or reduction of a stimulus whose removal or reduction increases or maintains a response.
extinction
A process in which behavior that previously was positively reinforced is no longer reinforced.
punishment
The presentation of an aversive stimulus to reduce a response.
social control theory
A view in which people are expected to commit crime and delinquency unless they are prevented from doing so.
labeling theory
A theory that emphasizes the criminalization process as the cause of some crime.
criminalization process
The way people and actions are defined as criminal.
conflict theory
A theory that assumes that society is based primarily on conflict between competing interest groups and that criminal law and the criminal justice system are used to control subordinate groups. Crime is caused by relative powerlessness.
power differentials
The ability of some groups to dominate other groups in a society.
relative powerlessness
In conflict theory, the inability to dominate other groups in society.
radical theories
Theories of crime causation that are generally based on a Marxist theory of class struggle.
class struggle
For radical criminologists, the competition among wealthy people and among poor people and between rich people and poor people, which causes crime.
left realists
A group of social scientists who argue that critical criminologists need to redirect their attention to the fear and the very real victimization experienced by working-class people.
relative deprivation
refers to inequalities (in resources, opportunities, material goods, etc.) that are defined by a person as unfair or unjust.
peacemaking criminology
An approach that suggests that the solutions to all social problems, including crime, are the transformation of human beings, mutual dependence, reduction of class structures, the creation of communities of caring people, and universal social justice. Pea
feminist theory
A perspective on criminality that focuses on women's experiences and seeks to abolish men's control over women's labor and sexuality.
patriarchy
Men's control over women's labor and sexuality.
postmodernism
An area of critical thought that, among other things, attempts to understand the creation of knowledge, and how knowledge and language create hierarchy and domination.