crime
an act that violates criminal law and is punishable by criminal sanctions
consensus model
a criminal justice model that defines criminal behavior as those acts that conflict with the values and beliefs of society as a whole
conflict model
a criminal justice model in which the content of criminal law is determined by the groups that hold economic, political, social power in a community
deviance
behavior that is considered to go against the norms established by society
murder
the unlawful killing of one human being by another
sexual assault
forced or coerced sexual intercourse
assault
a threat or an attempt to do violence to another person that causes that person to fear immediate physical harm
battery
the act of physically contacting another person with the intent to do harm, even if the resulting injury is insubstantial
robbery
the act of taking property from another person through force, threat of force, or intimidation
larceny
the act of taking property from another person without the use of force with the intent to keep that property
burglary
the act of breaking into or entering a structure (such as home or office) for the purpose of committing a felony
public order crime
behavior that has been labeled criminal because it is contrary to shared social values, customs, and norms
white-collar crime
nonviolent crimes committed by business entities or individuals to gain a personal or business advantage
organized crime
illegal acts carried out by illegal organizations engaged in the market for illegal services
criminal justice system
the interlocking network of law enforcement agencies, courts, and corrections institutions designed to enforce criminal laws and protect society from criminal behavior
discretion
the ability to make operational decisions based on personal judgement instead of formal rules or official information
wedding cake model
illustrated the different treatment and media attention that cases at the top of the cake receive compared with cases in its lower layers
civil rights
the personal rights and protections guaranteed by the Constitution particularly the Bill of Rights
crime control model
a criminal justice model that places primary emphasis on the right of society to be protected from crime and violent criminals
due process model
a criminal justice model that places primacy on the right of the individual to be protected from the power of the government
street gang
a group of people, usually three or more, who share a common identity and engage in illegal activities
gun control
efforts by a government to regulate or control the sale of guns
drug
any substance that modifies biological, psychological, or social behavior; in particular, an illegal substance with those properties
psychoactive drug
a drug that affects the brain, causing changed in emotions, perceptions, and behavior
homeland security
a concerted national effort to prevent terrorist attacks within the United States and reduce the country's vulnerability to terrorism
terrorism
the use or threat of violence to achieve political objectives
Uniform Crime Report (UCR)
An annual report compiled by the FBI to give an indication of criminal activity in the United States
Part I Offenses
Selected serious crimes reported annually by the FBI in its UCR
Part II Offenses
all crimes recorded by the FBI that do not fall into the category of Part I offenses. They include both misdemeanors and felonies
Victim Survey
a method of gathering crime data that directly surveys participants to determine their experiences as victims of crime
Dark Figure of Crime
A term used to describe the actual amount of crime that takes place, as opposed to the amount reported
Self-Reported Survey
A method of gathering crime data that relies on participants to reveal and detail their own criminal or delinquent behavior
criminology
the scientific study of crime and the causes of criminal behavior
choice theory
a school of criminology that holds that wrongdoers act as if they weigh the possible benefits of criminal or delinquent activity against the expected costs of being apprehended
social disorganization theory
the theory that deviant behavior is more likely in communities where social institutions such as the family, schools and the criminal justice system fail to exert control over the population
social process theories
a group of theories that consider criminal behavior to be the predictable result of a person's interaction with his or her environment
learning theory
the hypothesis that delinquents and criminals must be taught both the practical and emotional skills necessary to participate in illegal activity
labeling theory
the hypothesis that society creates crime and criminals by labeling certain behavior and certain people as deviant
social conflict theories
a group of theories that view criminal behavior as the result of class conflict
victimology
a school of criminology that studies why certain people are the victims of crimes and the optimal role for victims in the criminal justice system
repeat victimization
the theory that certain people and places are more likely to be subject to criminal activity because of past victimizations
chronic offender
a delinquent or criminal who commits multiple offenses and is considered part of a small group of wrongdoers who are responsible for a majority of the antisocial activity in any given community
constitutional law
law based on the US Constitution and te constitutions of the various states
statutory law
the body of law enacted by legislative bodies
model penal code
a statutory text created by the American Law Institute that sets forth the general principles of criminal responsibility and defines specific offenses
administrative law
the body of law created by administrative agencies (in the form of rules, regulations, orders, and decisions) in order to carry out their duties and responsibilities
case law
the rules of law announced in court decisions
precedent
a court decision that furnishes an example of authority fir deciding subsequent cases involving similar facts
civil law
the branch of law dealing with the definition and enforcement of all private or public rights as opposed to criminal matters
plaintiff
the person or institution that initiates a lawsuit in civil court proceedings by filing a complaint
defendant
in a civil court, the person or institution against whom an action is brought. In a criminal court, the person or entity who has been formally accused of violating a criminal law.
liability
in a civil court, legal responsibility for one's own or another's actions
beyond a reasonable doubt
the degree of proof required to find the defendant in a criminal trial guilty of committing the crime. The defendant's guilt must be the only reasonable explanation for the criminal act.
felony
a serious crime, punishable by death or by imprisonment for a year or longer
voluntary manslaughter
a homicide in which the intent to kill was present in the mind of the offender, but malice was lacking
involuntary manslaughter
a negligent homicide, in which the offender had no intent to kill his or her victim
misdemeanor
a criminal offense that is not a felony; usually punishable by a fine and or a jail term of less than one year
infraction
in most jurisdictions, a noncriminal offense for which the penalty is a fine rather than incarceration
mala in se
a descriptive term for acts that are inherently wrong, regardless of whether they are prohibited by law
mala prohibita
a descriptive term for acts that are made illegal by criminal statute and are not necessarily wrong in and of themselves
corpus delicti
the body of circumstances that must exist for a criminal act to have occurred
actus reus
a guilty (prohibited) act
attempt
the act of taking substantial steps toward committing a crime while having the ability and the intent to commit the crime, even if the crime never takes place
mens rea
mental state, or intent. A wrongful mental state is usually as necessary as a wrongful act to establish criminal liability
negligence
a failure to exercise the standard of care that a reasonable person would exercise in similar circumstances
recklessness
the state of being aware that a risk does or will exist and nevertheless acting in a way that consciously disregards this risk
strict liability crimes
certain crimes, such as traffic violations, in which the defendant is guilty regardless of her or his state of mind at the time of the act
statutory rape
a strict liability crime in which an adult engages in sexual activity with a minor
felony-murder
an unlawful homicide that occurs during the attempted commission of a felony
attendant circumstances
facts surrounding an event that must be proved for the event to be considered a criminal act
hate crime law
a statute that provides greater sanctions against those who commit crimes motivated by bias against an individual or a group based on race, gender, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, disability, or age
inchoate offense
the offense for preparing or attempting to commit a criminal act
infancy
a condition that under early American law, excused wrongdoers of criminal behavior because presumably they could not understand the consequences of their actions
insanity
a defense for criminal liability that asserts a lack of criminal responsibility due to mental instability
M'Naghten Rule
a test of criminal responsibility that relies on the defendant's inability to distinguish from right and wrong
Substantial-Capacity Test (ALI/MPC Test)
a test for the insanity defense that states that a person is not responsible for criminal behavior if he or she lacked the "substantial capacity" to "appreciate the wrongfulness" of the conduct or to behave in a manner consistent with criminal law
irresistible impulse test
a test for the insanity defense under which a defendant who knew his or her action was wrong may still be found insane if he or she was unable, as a result of mental deficiency, to refrain from acting
intoxication
a defense for criminal liability in which the defendant claims that the taking of intoxicants rendered him or her unable to form the requisite intent to commit a criminal act
duress
unlawful pressure brought to bear on a person, causing the person to perform an act he or she otherwise would not perform
self-defense
the legally recognized privilege to protect one's self or property from injury by another
duty to retreat
the requirement that a person claiming self defense prove that she or he first took reasonable steps to avoid the conflict that resulted in the use of deadly force
necessity
a defense against criminal liability in which the defendant asserts that circumstances required her or him to commit an illegal act
entrapment
a defense in which the defendant claims that he or she was induced by a public official--usually an undercover agent or police officer--to commit a crime that he or she would not have otherwise committed
substantive criminal law
law that defines the rights and duties of individuals with respect to one another
procedural criminal law
rules that define the manner in which the rights and duties of individuals may be enforced
due process clause
the provisions of the 5th and 14th amendments to the Constitution that guarantee that no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of the law
procedural process clause
the constitutional requirement that the law must be carries out in a fair and orderly manner
substantive due process
the constitutional requirement that laws used in accusing and convicting persons of crimes must be fair
patronage system
a form of corruption in which the political party in power hires and promotes police officers, receiving job-related "favors" in return
professional model
a style of policing that emphasizes centralized police organizations, increased use of technology, and limitations on police discretion through regulations and guidelines
sheriff
the primary law enforcement officer in a county usually elected to the post by a popular vote
coroner
the medical examiner of a county, usually elected by popular vote
Federal Bureau Investigation (FBI)
the branch of the Department of Justice responsible for investigating violations of federal law
private security
security services provided by private corporations or individuals instead of by police officers
recruitment
the process by which law enforcement agencies develop a pool of qualified applicants from which to select new members
probationary period
a period of time at the beginning of a police officer's career during which she or he may be fired without cause
field training
the segment of a police of a police recruit's training in which he or she is removed from the classroom and placed under the supervision of a senior officer
bureaucracy
a hierarchically structured administrative organization that carries out specific functions
delegation of authority
the process by which authority is distributed downward in an organization
sworn officer
a law enforcement agent who has been authorized to make arrests and use force, including deadly force, against civilians
detective
the primary police investigator of crimes
confidential informant (CI)
a human source who provides police with information concerning illegal activity in which he or she is involved
clearance rate
a comparison of the number of crimes cleared by arrest and filing of charges with the number of crimes reported during any given time period
cold case
a criminal investigation that has not been solved after a certain amount of time
forensics
the application of science and technology to establish facts and evidence during the investigation of crimes
trace evidence
evidence such as fingerprints, blood, or hair found in small amounts at a crime scene
ballistics
the study of firearms, including the firing of the weapon and the flight of the bullet
DNA Fingerprinting
the identification of a person based on a sample of her or his DNA, the genetic material found in the cells of all living things
cold hit
the establishment of a connection between a suspect and a crime, often through the use of DNA evidence, in the absence of an ongoing criminal investigation
incident-driven policing
a reactive approach to policing that emphasizes a speedy response to calls for service
response time
the rapidity with which calls for service are answered, used as a measurement of police efficiency
general patrol
a patrol strategy in which the police officers monitor a certain area with the goal of detecting crimes in progress or preventing crime due to their presence
directed patrol
a patrol strategy in which the police officers focus on a specific type of criminal activity at a specific time
hot spot
a concentrated area of high criminal activity that draws a directed police response
reactive arrest
an arrest that comes about as part of the ordinary routine of police patrols and responses to calls for service
proactive arrest
an arrest that occurs because of concerted efforts by law enforcement agencies to respond to a particular type of criminal or criminal behavior
broken windows theory
Wilson and Kelling's theory that by cracking down on quality-of-life crimes, police can significantly reduce all crime in an area
community policing
a policing philosophy that emphasizes community support for and cooperation with the police in preventing a crime
problem-oriented policing
a policing philosophy that requires police to identify potential criminal activity and develop strategies to prevent or respond to that activity
police subculture
the values and perceptions that are shared by members of a police department and, to a certain extent, by all law enforcement agencies
socialization
the process through which a person learns the values and behavior that a specific culture or subculture expects of its members
blue curtain
a metaphorical term that refers to the secrecy and general mistrust of the outside world shared by many police officers
police cynicism
the negative attitude toward civilians and the law of civil society developed by some police officers
reasonable force
the degree of force that is appropriate to protect the police officer or other citizens and is not excessive
deadly force
force applied by a police officer that is likely or intended to cause death
police corruption
the abuse of authority by a law enforcement officer for personal gain
Internal Affairs Unit (IAU)
a division within the police department that receives and investigates complaints of wrongdoing by police officers
citizen oversight
the process by which citizens review complaints brought against individual police officers or police departments
ethics
the rules or standards of behavior governing a profession; aimed at ensuring the fairness and rightness of actions
duty
the obligation to act in a certain manner