Multidirectional
at every period, development is a joint expression of growth and decline
multidimensional
affected by an intricate blend of biological, psychological, and social forces
plastic
capacity for change
Lifelong
no age period dominates development
Multidiciplinary
Various areas of study have an interest in the field of development across the lifespan
Contextual
All development occurs within a setting (social, cultural, and historic factors)
Nature
biological inheritance
nurture
the environments, both physical and social, that influence our development
Continuity
the tendency to perceive things as simply as possible with a continuous pattern
discontinuity
abrupt changes
stability
Become older versions of our early experience
Change
to make or become different than we were in childhood
Freud's Psychosexual Stages
oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency stage, genital stage -
Freud
Unconscious awareness. Experience with parents shape development
Erikson's Theory
Theory that proposes eight stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
Nature vs Nurture, Autonomy vs Shame, Initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs confusion, intimacy vs isolation, Generativity vs Stagnation, Integrity vs Despair
Piaget's stages of cognitive development
1. sensorimotor - 0-2 instincts,reacts to world
2. preoperational 2-*7 represents world with words
3. concrete operational 7-11 reason with logic
4. formal operational - 11 - on abstract, idalistic, logical ways
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
the approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture
information processing theory
theory proposing that human cognition consists of mental hardware and mental software
operant conditioning
Skinner - Rewards and punishment shape development
Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
Holds that behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors are the key factors in development
Ecological Theory
theory based on idea that human development is inseparable from the environmental contexts in which a person develops
Ethology Theory
stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods
Erikson vs. Freud
less emphasis on sexual urges
more emphasis on ego, social life, and relationship
more positive view of human nature
development continues through adulthood
descriptive research
research methods that involve observing behavior to describe that behavior objectively and systematically
correlational research
research that seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists
experimental research
gathering primary data by selecting matched groups of subjects, giving them different treatments, controlling related factors, and checking for differences in group responses
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles (ghandi)
cross-sectional study
people of different ages are compared with one another
longitudal study
research in which the same people are studied and retested over a long period
dominant gene
member of a gene pair that controls the appearance of a certain trait
recessive gene
Gene that is hidden when the dominant gene is present
Genotype
genetic makeup of an organism
Phenotype
An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.
Down Syndrome
a condition of intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.
Klinefelter syndrome
A chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXY instead of XY.
Examples of genetic abnormalities
Cystic Fibrosis, Diabetes, Hemophilia, Sickle Cell
behavioral genetics
how our genes and our environment influence our individual differences
twin study
A study in which the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins.
adoption study
analysis of how traits vary in individuals raised apart from their biological relatives
passive correlation
parents provide environments influenced by their own heredity
evocative correlation
children evoke responses that are influenced by the child's heredity, and these responses strengthen the child's original style
Active (niche-picking)
children actively seek out "niches" in their environment that reflect their own interests and talents and are thus in accord with their genotype
germinal period
first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining
embryonic period
the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop
fetal period
fetal period of prenatal development
Teratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
Teratogen
Factors include
Dose, Genetic susceptibility, time of exposure
Nicotine
Teratogen that causes low birth weight, death, and respiratory issues
Alcohol
Teratogen that causes abnormalities, deformities, kids are dumb
Cocaine
Teratogen that causes lower arousal, higher agression, impaired development
Cephalocaudal
head to toe
Proximodistal
Near to far"
Extremities grow later than head, chest, and trunk
Lobes of the brain
frontal (movement, thinking) , parietal(attention), temporal(hearing, language), occipital (vision)
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
a condition that occurs when an infant stops breathing, usually during the night, and suddenly dies without an apparent cause
Advantages of breastfeeding
fewer food allergies and intolerances, reduced likelihood of overfeeding, less cost than commercial infant formulas, reduces risk of breast and ovarian cancer
reflex
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, that govern newborn movement
Reflexes that disappear several months after birth
Moto Reflex (arch back), Grasping, Rooting
reflexes that persist throughout life
Coughing, sneezing, blinking, shivering, and yawning
Sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
Perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
Mother's face, bright colors
What newborn prefer to look at
Schemes (Piaget)
actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
accommodation
adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences
Assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
Sensori-motor stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
Communicative Behavior
Crying (birth), Cooing (2-4 months), babbling (6 months), Gestures (8-12 months), Spoken Words (13 months)
universal linguists
Infants can detect differences between the speech sounds of ANY human language (up to 6 months)
secure pattern of attachment
Child uses caregiver as secure base
insecure-avoidant attachment
a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return
insecure-resistant attachment
classification of parent-child attachment in which the child shows little exploratory behavior when the parent is present, great distress when the parent leaves the room, and ambivalence upon the parent's return
insecure-disorganized attachment
a pattern of attachment in which an infant seems confused or apprehensive and shows contradictory behavior, such as moving toward the mother while looking away from her
temperament
Individual differences in behavior, emotions and characteristic ways of responding
Factors that Influence temperament
Biological, hereditary, gender, culture
Behaviors of Trust vs Mistrust
Comfort and care are key to establishing trust. Sets stage for a lifelong expectation the world is a good place to be.
Behaviors of Autonomy vs Shame/doubt
Infant develops self-recognition. Independence is a central theme at 2nd year of life. Important to recognize motivation of toddlers and their pace.
Physical Changes in Early Childhood
Children grow 2 1/2 inches in height and gains 5-7 pounds per year in early childhood.
11 to 13 hours of sleep is recommended for ______________.
Early childhood
2 Hours per day is recommended for
Exercise. 1 hour free time. 1 hour structured.
Cognitive changes in Early childhood
Cognitive world is creative, free and fanciful. Mental grasp improves.
Preoperational stage (Piaget)
2-7 years
Egocentric understanding; rapidly acquiring words as symbols for things; inability to perform mental operations
Animism
the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action
Centration (Piaget)
centering attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others
Egocentrism (Piaget)
inability to take another person's point of view -- preoperational stage
Conservation (Piaget)
the realization that properties of objects remain the same even when appearance changes
Scaffolding (Vygotsky)
support of learning allows students to complete tasks they are not able to complete independently
Piaget's substages
Substage 1- babies are reflexive beings who suck, grasp, and look in much the same way, no matter what experiences they encounter
Substage 2- infants start to gain voluntary control over their actions through the primary circular reaction by repeating cha
Impact of Early Preschool
Children learn and apply rules of syntax and how words are ordered. Vocabulary.
Initiative; Guilt
During early childhood, children use their perceptual, motor, cognitive and language skills to make things happen. Erikson referred to this as _____________; Failure to do so may result in ______________
Evolutionary View
Adaptation during human evolution produced physiological differences between male and female
social role theory
a theory that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of men and women
psychoanalytic theory
A theory deriving from Freud's view that preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite sex parent.
social cognitive theory
emphasizes that children's gender development occurs through observation and imitation of gender behavior through rewards and punishments.
authoritative parenting
parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children
authoritarian parenting
style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child
indulgent parenting
A style of parenting in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them.
neglectful parenting
a parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child's life
Neglect
most common form of child abuse
Play's Functions
Makes important contributions to young children's cognitive and socioemotional development.
sensorimotor play
behavior engaged in by infants to derive pleasure from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemas
practice play
play that involves repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports
pretense/symbolic play
play in which the child transforms the physical environment into a symbol
social play
play that involves social interactions with peers
Infancy growth rate
Growth is rapid and follows patterns
2-3 inches, 5-7 pounds
In early and middle childhood, children add about ___ inches in height and ___ pounds in weight each year.
a) 4-5; 10
b) 3-4; 7-9
c) 2-3; 5-7
d) 1-2; 3
Early Middle childhood growth rate
Growth rate slows
concrete operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
working memory
A mental "workbench" where individuals manipulate and assemble information when making decisions, solving problems, and comprehending written and spoken language.
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
Analytical Intelligence (Sternberg)
ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast
Creative Intelligence (Sternberg)
ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine
Practical Intelligence (Sternberg)
ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Seven defined types of intelligence: verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily, musical, interpersonal, interpersonal, naturalist
Giftedness
An extreme of intelligence defined as having an IQ score of 130 or above.
Challenges a gifted child might face
Isolation, labeled as nerd or geek, bored, expected to be a leader
learning disability
when a child with normal intelligence has difficulty mastering at least one academic subject
mental retardation
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound
Effect of bilingualism
Perform better than single-language counterparts on tests.
Example of Erikson's 4th stage
Building a model airplane, constructing, fixing a bike
Preconventional reasoning (Kohlberg)
Individual's moral reasoning is controlled by rewards and punishment
conventional reasoning
A type of reasoning in which a child looks for approval from peers and society.
Postconventional reasoning
reasoning based on a person's own moral standards of goodness
Children's ability to cope with stress in middle-late Childhood
Older children generate more coping alternatives to stress. They are better at shifting thoughts to less stressful things. Use cognitive strategy to cope.
parent-child relationship in middle to late childhood
Children and parents spend considerably less time with each other.
constructivist approach to education
A learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher.
fixed mindset
intelligence is biologically set and unchanging
growth mindset
intelligence is changeable if you learn more
climacteric
midlife transition in which fertility declines
menopause
cessation of menstruation
Health problems in middle adulthood
Chronic disorders, arthritis, hypertension, coronary, cancer, stroke. Varicose veins, burstitis
Stress effects in middle adulthood
damaging effect on physical functioning. Overproduction of cortisol. immune weakening and cardiovascular factors
fluid intelligence
one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
Information processing speed
reaction time; decreases with age
working memory
A mental "workbench" where individuals manipulate and assemble information when making decisions, solving problems, and comprehending written and spoken language.; declines with age
Generativity
the desire, in middle age, to use one's accumulated wisdom to guide future generations
difference between men and women stress
women are more vulnerable to social stress. Romance, family, work. women engage in tend and befriend pattern. Men respond with fight or flight. Become aggressive or withdraw. Drink.
Costa and McCrae
created the Big five model. OCEAN= Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neurotocism. Reveal traits change during adulthood.
Berkely Longitudinal Studies
stability through self confidence and open to new experience.
Helson's Mills College Study
Three main groups of women:
� Family-oriented
� Career-oriented
� Neither path
George Valliant Study
helps us examine different questions than the other studies. Does personality at middle age predict what life will be like in late adulthood.
View of Death - Children
no idea what it means. Confuse with sleep.
View of Death - Adolescence
Develops abstract conceptions more than children. Describe in terms of darkness, light, transition or nothingness.
View of Death - Adults
Awareness that they are aging which intensifies
Kubler-Ross stages of dying
1. Denial
2. Anger
3. Bargaining
4. Depression
5. Acceptance
disenfranchised grief
the emotion surrounding a loss that others do not support, share, or understand
prolonged grief
grief that involves enduring despair and is still unresolved over an extended period of time
loss-oriented stressors
focus on the deceased individual and can include grief work and both positive and negative reappraisal of the loss
restoration-oriented stressors
secondary stressors that emerge as indirect outcomes of bereavement
Age related changes to brain during late adulthood
Prefrontal cortex shrinks. Slower motor behaivior. High levels of fitness and activity translates into better memory.
Common chronic disorders of late adulthood
Chronic conditions associated with the greatest limitations on work are heart conditions (52 percent), diabetes (34 percent), asthma (27 percent), and arthritis (27 percent).
cognitive mechanics
The "hardware" of the mind, reflecting the neurophysiological architecture of the brain. Cognitive mechanics involve the speed and accuracy of the processes involving sensory input, visual and motor memory, discrimination, comparison, and categorization.
cognitive pragmatics
The culture-based "software programs" of the mind. Cognitive pragmatics include reading and writing skills, language comprehension, educational qualifications, professional skills, and also the type of knowledge about the self and life skills that help us
Speed of processing
how quickly we process information
episodic memory
retention of information and happenings
Semantic Memory
person's knowledge of the world
Explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare
Implicit memory
memory without conscious recollection; involves skills and routine procedures that are automatically performed
Prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future, tasks.
conclusion of research effect of memory or cognitive training
improve skills, some loss of plasticity,
integrity vs despair
-Erikson psychosocial crisis
-Resolved in mature adulthood
-Determining how well one has lived
activity theory
more active and involved older adults are, more likely they are satisfied with their life
sociomotional selectivity theory
oriented more towards present than future, emphasize emotional fulfillment
selective optimization with compensation theory
the theory that successful aging is related to three main factors: selection, optimization, and compensation
3 factors of successful aging
absence of disability and disease
maintenance of physical and cognitive function
Connection with other people
Male Adolescent Changes
Increase in Penis and testical size, pubic hair, minor voice changes, first ejaculation, increased growth, deeper voice, facial hair
Female Adolescent Changes
breasts enlarge, pubic hair appears, armpits, height, weight, hip grows wider than shoulders, menstruation
Testosterone
Male sex hormone - genital development, height, deeper voice
Estradiol
Estrogen that is associated with breast, uterine and skeletal development in females
What are some health risks of adolescence?
unintentional injuries, intentional injuries, sexual activity, substance abuse, alcohol= car accidents.
What are some major characteristics of formal operational thought?
In Piaget's theory, the fourth and final stage of cognitive development, characterized by more systematic logical thinking and by the ability to understand and systematically manipulate abstract concepts.
What are some criticisms of Piaget's Theory of formal operational thoughts?
Researchers findings show there is much more individual variation. Only 1 in 3 young adolescents is a formal operational thinker and many American adults (and other cultures) ever become operational thinkers.
personal fable (Elkind)
David Elkind's term for the tendency of young teenagers to believe that their lives are special and heroic; a component of adolescent egocentrism
imaginary audience (Elkind)
belief that everyone in the environment is concerned with the behavior/appearance of him/herself
identity
our sense of self; self portrait based on many factors (political, career, religion, relationship, sexuality, etc)
self-esteem
one's feelings of high or low self-worth
self-concept
our understanding and evaluation of who we are
self-regulation
ability to respond to ongoing demands of experience and range of emotions
Diffusion Identity Status
no crisis, no commitment
moratorium status
crisis, no commitment
foreclosure status
no crisis, commitment
Achievement Status
Crisis; commitment
sexual identity
the recognition, or internalization, of a biological sex category
ethnic identity
An enduring, basic aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group and the attitudes and feelings related to that membership.
How does religion and Spirituality development relate to social and cognitive development in adolescents?
Adolescents increased idealistic thinking provides a foundation for thinking about whether religion provides the best route to a better world
How do roles of Peers differ from that of parents in the lives of Adolescence?
� Companionship
� Stimulation
� Physical support
� Ego support
� Information (feedback, the truth)
� Intimacy
What are the causes of Juvenile Delinquency?
heredity, identity problems, community influences, family experiences, peer pressure, parenting
What are the causes of depression in adolescence
Self image, stress, genes, toxic family setting, friendship circle
What are the risk factors of suicide in adolescence?
Family instability, depression, self image, lack of support, pressure
What are the roles of nutrition and exercise in the health of young adults?
improves self concept
reduces anxiety and depression
greater satisfaction with life.
How is adult cognition different than that of adolescents'?
Young adults are more quantitatively advanced in their thinking since they have more knowledge.
What is meant by post formal thought?
thinking that acknowledges that adult predicaments must sometimes be solved in relativistic terms
According to Eriksons theory, ___ is described as finding oneself while losing oneself in another person
intimacy
When young adults fail to develop meaningful relationships
isolation
How do peer relationships differ in males and females?
Females share more close friends, self disclosure, share, listen, talk, mutual support.
Males engage in activities.
How prevalent is divorce?
Divorce has declined in recent decades. US has highest divorce rate in the world. 3.6 divorces per 1000 people.
In what ways are gay and lesbian relationships similar to hetero relationships?
Satisfactions , loves, joys, conflicts
What are some misconceptions of gay and lesbian relationships?
One partner is masculine and other is feminine. Gay population has large number of partners
How do adults cope with divorce?
the good-enough approach
enhancers
good enoughs
seekers
libertines
competent loners
the defeated
seekers
individuals searching for new mate
Libertines
spends more time in bars, more casual sex
competent loners
- Made up about 10% of sample
- Most had successful careers and/or social lives
- Express little interest or desire in remarriage
The defeated
added stress of failed marriage was more than they can handle