psychological disorder
a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in a person's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
a psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity
twice as likely in boys
Philippe Pinel
French reformer who opposed brutal treatments for psychological disorders
medical model
the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and cured, often through treatment in a hospital.
classification attempts to predict the disorder's future course and to suggest treatment. And it prompts research into causes.
...
epigenetics
the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
DSM-5
the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.
anxiety disorders
psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety
generalized anxiety disorder
an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, fearful, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal
panic disorder
an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person may experience terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations; often followed by worry over a possible next attack
agoraphobia
the fear of again experiencing the dreaded tornado of anxiety
phobia
an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both.
post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia lingering for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience.
50% of people experience traumatic event, 5 to 10% of people d
Causes of anxiety disorders: conditioning, cognition, and biology
...
conditioning
classical conditioning: stimulus generalization: when a person experiences a fearful event and later develops a fear of similar events
operant conditioning: reinforcement: helps maintain learned fears and anxieties. a feeling of relief can reinfroce malad
cognition
our thoughts, memories, interpretations, and expectations play a role in many kinds of learning, including what we learn to fear
genes: Some of us are genetically predisposed to anxiety disorders. Experiences can affect gene expression
...
the brain: anxiety disorders express themselves biologically as overarousal of brain areas involved in impulse control and habitual behaviors. these disorders reflect a brain danger-detection system gone hyperactive, producing anxiety when no danger exist
...
Natural selection: humans seem biologically prepared to fear the threats our ancestors faced
...
psychoactive drug
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood. three categories: depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens. these stimulate, inhibit, or mimic the activity of the brain's own neurotransmitters.
substance use disorder
disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk.
tolerance
a dwindling effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
withdrawal
the discomfort and distress that follow ending the use of an addictive drug or behavior
depressants
drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce (depress) neural activity and slow body functions
alcohol use disorder
(alcoholism) alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use
barbiturates
drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement
opiates
opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin, depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
stimulants
drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
nicotine
a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco
cocaine
a powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant; temporarily increases alertness and produces feelings or euphoria.
amphetamines
drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
methamphetamine
a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels
Ecstasy (MDMA)
a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition
hallucinogens
psychedelic drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and trigger sensory images in the absence of sensory input
near-death experience
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death; often similar to drug-induced hallucinations
LSD
a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid
THC
the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations
major depressive disorder
a disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure.
persistent depressive disorder
mildly depressed mood for at least two eyars
bipolar disorder
a disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and weariness of depression and the overexcited state of mania
mania
a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state in which dangerously poor judgment is common
300 million people have major depressive or bipolar disorder. women are twice as likely to have major depressive disorder
...
women are more vulnerable to disorders involving internal states such as depression, anxiety, and inhibited sexual desire
men's disorders tend to be more external such as alcohol use disorder, antisocial conduct, lack of impulse control
...
biological influences for depression.
...
genes and depression: heritability of major depressive disorder estimated at 37%
...
norepinephrine increases arousal and boosts mood. it is scarce during depression and overabundant during mania. serotonin is also scarce or inactive during depression. drugs can increase norepinephrine or serotonin for the depressed brain.
...
Psychological and social influences for depression
self-defeating beliefs and negative explanatory style feed their depression. learned helpleess, relentless, self-focused rumination (overthink, fret, brood) more common in women
explanatory style
depressed people explain bad events in terms that are stable, global, and internal. a depressed mood triggers negative thoughts
...
schizophrenia
a disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression
psychotic disorder
a group of disorders marked by irrational ideas, distorted perceptions, and a loss of contact with reality
Positive symptom schizophrenia
inappropriate behaviors are present. may have hallucinations or talk in disorganized and deluded ways
negative symptom schizophrenia
appropriate behaviors are absent. those may have toneless voices, expressionless faces, or mute and rigid bodies.
1 in 100 people (60% men) will join 24 million with people with schizophrenia this year. strikes young people.
...
delusion
a false belief, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders
acute schizophrenia
(reactive schizophrenia) a form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age, frequently occurs in response to an emotionally traumatic event, and has extended recovery periods. Positive symptoms that respond to drug therapy
chronic schizophrenia
(process schizophrenia) a form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late adolescence or early adulthood. As people age, psychotic episodes last longer and recovery periods shorten. Social withdrawal, negative symptom common.
abnormal brain chemistry: excess number of dopamine receptors, high level of dopamine could intensify brain signals, creating positive symptoms. drugs that block dopamine lessen positive symptoms
...
abnormal brain structures: low activity in frontal lobe, unusual corpus callosum. areas of brain become enlarged and fill with fluid, cerebral tissue shrinks.
...
midpregnancy viral infection impair fetal brain development and increases risk of schizophrenia. dopamine, myelin gene factors
...