Socialization
The process whereby children acquire knowledge about the language, values, etiquette, rules, behaviors, social expectations, and all the subtle, complex bits of information necessary to get along and thrive in a particular society
Family Structure
The nuclear family as well as those non-traditional alternatives to nuclear family which are adopted by persons in committed relationships and the people they consider to be "family
A family is a primary group
People who are intimate and have frequent face-to-face contact with one another, have norms (that is, expectations regarding how members in the group should behave) in common, and share mutually enduring and extensive influences
Obligations for each other
Mutual commitment and resposibility for other family members
Single-parent family
A family household in which one parent resides with the children but without the other parent.
Household
Comprises all persons who occupy a "housing unit" that constitutes "separate living quarters
Stepfamilies
Families in which one or both parents reside with children from prior marriages or unions
Blended famiily
Any nontraditional configuration of people who live together, are committed to each other, and perform functions traditionally assumed by families
Family Functions
Include a wide range of caregiving functions, including nurturing and socializing children, providing material and emotional support, and assuming general resposibility for the well-being of all members
Communication
Involves clear expression of personal ideaas and feelings even when they differ from those of other family members. It also involves being sensitive to the needs and feelings of other family members. It promotes compromise so that the most important needs
Family Therapy
Intervention by a social worker or other family therapist with members of a family to improve communication and interaction among members and to pursue other changes and goals they wish to pursue
System
A set of elements that form an orderly, interrelated, and functional whole
Homeostasis
Refers to the tendency for a system to maintain a relatively stable, constant state of equilibrium or balance
Subsystem
A secondary or subordinate system- a system within a system
Boundaries
Repeatedly occurring patterns of behavior that characterize the relationships within a system and give that system a particular identity
Input
The energy, information, or communication flow recieved from other systems
Output
The energy, information, or communication emitted from a system to the environment or to other systems
Feedback
A system's receipt of information from an outside source about its own performance or behavior
Entropy
The natural tendency of a system to progress toward disorganization, depletion, and, in essence, death
Negative Entropy
The process of a system moving toward growth and development
Equifinality
The idea that there are many different means to the same end. It is important not to get locked into only one way of thinking, because in any particular situation, there are alternatives
Differentiation
A system's tendency to move from a more simplified to a more complex existence
Learning Theory
A theoretical orientation that conceptualizes the social environment in terms of behavior, its preceeding events, and its subsequent consequences
Behavior Modification
A therapeutic application of learning theory priciples
Stimulus
An object or event that can be detected by one of the senses, and thus has the potential to influence the person
Unconditioned (naturally occurring) Stimulus
A response naturally emitted after exposure to a stimulus; naturally occuring
Conditioned (learned) Stimulus
A stimulus that does not result in a response naturally, but does result in a response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits the response naturally
Respondant Conditioning
Occurs when a person learns to respond to a new stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response. This new stimulus is called, conditioned (learned) stimulus
Systematic Desensitization
A procedure in which a person with a phobia practices relaxation while imagining scenes of the fear-producing stimulus.
Phobia
A fear in which the level of anxiety or escape and avoidance behavior is severe enough to disrupt the person's life
Modeling
The learning of bahvior by observing another individual engaging in the behavior. Modeling is also called observational learning. A behavior can be learned simply by observing its occurrence
Role Playing
Practicing behavior through a trial run in preparation for a later situation in which some goal is to be achieved
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which behaviors are influenced primarily by the consequences that follow them
Antecendents
The events occurring immediately before the behavior itself. The events set the stage for the behavior to occur
Behavior
An observable and measurable response or act...Behavior is occasionally broadly defined to include cognitions, psychophysiological reactions, and feelings, which may not be directly observable but are defined in terms that can be measured by means of vari
Consequence
May be either something that is given or something that is withdrawn or delayed
Reinforcement
Refers to a procedure or consequence that increases the frequency of the behavior immediately preceing it
Positive Reinforcement
Refers to positive events or consequences that follow a behavior and strengthen it
Negative Reinforcement
The removal of a negative event or consequence that serves to increase the frequency of a behavior
Punishment
The presentation of an aversive event or the removal of a positive reinforcer, which results in a decrease in the frequency of a behavior
Extinction
The process whereby reinforcement for a behavior stops, resulting in the eventual decrease in frequency and possible eradication of that behavior
Extinction Burst
When reinforcement is initially stopped, a brief increase in the frequency or intensity of the behavior may occur
Primary or Unconditioned Reinforcements
Are rewarding in themselves; without any association with other reinforcers. They include objects and activities that people naturally find valuable such as food, water, candy, and sex
Secondary Reinforcers
Have values that are learned through association with other reinforcers. They must be learned because alone they have no intrinsic value. Exaple: Money
Material Reinforcers
Specific objects or substances that can be used as rewards to increase specific behaviors
Activities
Tangible events whose value has been learned
Premack Principle
States that the opportunity to engage in a high probability behavior (a preferred behavior) as a consequence for a low-probability (a less-preferred behavior), but never vice versa
Social Reinforcers
Include words and gestures used to indicate caring an concern toward another person
Verbal Praise
Involves words or phrases that indicate approval or appreciation of someone's specific bahavior
Physical Praise
Involves communicating appreciation or praise through physical gestures or body posture. This may simply involve a smile or a nod of the head. Hugging, clapping, or even winking can also indicate praise
Token Reinforcers
Designated symbolic objects reflecting specific units of value that an individual can exchange for some other commodity that he or she wants
Reward
Not necessarily a positive reinforcer. Is something that is given in return for a service or a particular achievement. It may or may not increase the frequency of a particular behavior
Reinforcers
Increase the frequency of a behavior
Continuous Reinforcement
The most effective way to increase a particular behavior is to reinforce it every time it occurs
Intermittent Reinforcement
A behavior is not reinforced every time it is performed, but is reinforced only occassionally
Schedules of Reinforcement
Each type of intermittent reinforcement dictates a different procedure for how frequently or in what order reinforcement should be administered (for example, every third time or randomly)
Shaping
Refers to the reinforcement of successive approximations--that is, small steps of progress made toward the final desired behavior
Baseline
The frequency with which a behavior occur before behavior modification begins
Active Listening
The process in which the reciever of a communication pays close attention to what the sender of the communication is saying, and subsequently reflects back what was heard to make sure the "message has been accurately unerstood.
Time-out
Based on a period of time and the unavailablity of reinforcement during that time period. Of course, it is also a punishment procedure. Something is withdrawn (availability of reinforcers) contingent on behavior.
Permissive
Parents that are very nondirective and avoid trying to control their children. They may be overly indulgent or rejecting-neglecting
Permissive-indulgent
These parents are easygoing and unconventional. Their brand of permissiveness is accompanied by high nurturance (warmth and resposiveness)
Permissive-rejecting neglecting
Parents shun or ignore their children, thereby leaving children to fend for themselves. Such parents show little if any affection and responsiveness
Authoritarian
Parents adopting this style have definite ideas about how children should behave. These parents do not hesitate to make rules and tell their children what to do. They emphasize control and conformity
Authoritative
Parents using this style are neither permissive nor authoritarian, but somewhere in the middle. On the one hand, they provide conrol and consisttent support. On the other hand, they involve their children iin decision making and encourage the development
Social Play
Invovles the extent to which children interact with other children as they play
Fantasy Play
Involves what children think about and how they imagine their pretend games as they play
Peer Group
Made up of a child's equals
Sociometry
A common technique for examining children's interaction which involves asking children questions about their relationships and feelings toward people
Sociogram
A diagram in which relationships can be illustrated
Bullying
Refers to the aggression by an individual that is repeatedly directed toward particular peers (victims)..it may be physical, verbal, or social. It differs from other form of aggression in that it is characterized by specifity (bullies direct their act to
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Students will perform to the level of expectation placed upon them
Maltreatment
Includes physical abuse; being given inadequate care and nourishment; deprivation of adequate medical care; insufficient encourgaement to attend school consistently; exploition by being forced to work too hard or too long; "exposure to unwholesomeor demor
Physical Abuse
Defined ver generally as "mom-accidental injury inflicted on a child," usually by a caregiver, other adults, or sometimes, an older child
Hypervigilance
Behavioral pattern in which abused children will even avoid playing because it draws too much attention to themselves
Child neglect
A caregiver's failure to meet a child's basic needs; this may involve depriving a child of physical, emotional, medical, mental health, or educational necessities
Physical Neglect
The failure to protect from harm or danger and provide for the child's basic physical needs, including adequate shelter, food, and clothing; it is the most widely recognized and commonly identified form of neglect
Inadequate Supervision
Refers to situations in which children are without a caretaker or the caretaker is inattentive or unsuitable, and therefore the children are in danger of harming themselves or possibly others
Nonorganic failure-to-thrive syndrome
Occurs in infancy, it is characterized by infants who are below the fifth percentile in weight and often in height
Psychological Abuse
It is belittling, humiliating, rejecting, undermining, a child's self-esteem, and generally not (conducive to) creating a positive atmosphere for a child
Psychological Neglect
It is the passive or passive/aggressive inattention to the child's emotional needs, nurturing, or emotional well-being
Child Protective Services
This agency investigates reports of abuse and nelect, assess the degree of harm and the ongoing risk of harm to the child, determine whether the child can remain safely in the home or should be placed in the custody of the state, and work closely with the
Petition
A written complaint submitted to the court that the alleged abuse of neglect has occured
Adjudication
A hearing where the alleged abuse or neglect is proven or discounted
Disposition
Involves a hearing in which the court determines what is to be done with the child
Sexual Abuse
Any sexual activity with a child where consent is not or cannot be given...This includes sexual contact that is accomplished by force or threat of force, regardless of the age of the participants, and all sexual contact between an adult and a child, regar
Pedophile
When sexual abuse is perpetrated by someone outside the family; someone who prefers children for sexual gartification
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
A condition in which a person continues to reexperience an excessively traumatic event. Symptoms include extreme anxiety, nightmares, an inability to sleep or stay awake, an inability to concentrate, and explosive, angry emotional ourbursts