Language and Literacy Development

Phonetics

Study of the acoustical and articulatory characteristics of human speech sounds

Manner of Articulation

Refers to how the tongue and/or lips control airflow to vary phonemes

Phonological Awareness

Refers to the awareness of the sounds that make up a spoken language

Phonemic Awareness

Awareness of the individual phonemes or speech sounds used in the child's native language

Phonological Awareness Instruction

Teaches children:
� to recognize the speech sounds they hear
� to identify and differentiate these sounds
� to produce them accurately
� and to manipulate them

How do children develop phonological awareness?

Through exposure to language and through direct training, both of which are provided by the adults around them and in their lives.

Phonics

Knowledge of letter-sound relationships

Decoding

The ability to use knowledge of letter-sound relationships to accurately read a word.

Encoding

Blending/combining individual sounds/letters to form words

Strong phonological and phonemic awareness in children is often a predictor of what?

Future long-term success in spelling, reading, and literacy performance

Orthography

A set of conventions for writing a language. It includes norms of spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, word breaks, emphasis, and punctuation.

Orthographic Processing

Using the visual system to form, store, and recall words

Phonology

the study of speech sounds and how they change depending on certain situations or placements in syllables, words, and sentences.

What does skilled reading require?

The coordination of orthographic processing, phonological processing, and the processing of meaning and context.

Morphology

the smallest unit of speech that has meaning.
-- plural "s" ending
-- past tense "ed" ending

Semantics

the aspect of language function that relates to understanding the meanings of words, phrases and sentences, and using words appropriately when we speak

Pragmatics

he area of language function that embraces the use of language in social contexts (knowing what to say, how to say it, and when to say it - and how to "be" with other people).
-- how to speak at home vs. how to speak at school

Following the CAR

Comment - the adult should comment on what a child is looking at, handling, or talking about, then wait 5 seconds.
Ask - to continue the conversation the adult has begun and/or to start a new one, the adult should then ask the child questions about someth

What is a "real" conversation?

Conversations that interest the child and consist of three to four exchanges/turns between the child and the adult

Teaching strategies that support children's active participation in real conversations

� attentively listening to what the children say
� inviting children to join extended conversations with adults and peers
� demonstrating a genuine interest in and affection for the children
� sending verbal and non-verbal messages that are consistent
� a

Stages of English as a Second Language

1. Preproduction
2. Early Production
3. Speech Emergence
4. Intermediate Fluency
5. Advanced Fluency

Preproduction Stage

� Takes place during roughly the first 6 months of learning
� Listening comprehension is minimal
�Does not speak English, but can nod/shake the head "yes/no", draw pictures, and point at things

Early Production Stage

� Lasts from roughly 6 months to 1 year into learning
� Limited English comprehension
� Can utter 1 to 2 word answers, essential words, familiar phrases, and present tense verbs

Speech Emergence Stage

� Lasts about 1 to 3 years into learning
� Comprehend English well
� Speak in simple sentences, but still make mistakes in pronunciation and grammar
� Misunderstand jokes in English

Intermediate Fluency Stage

� Lasts about 3 to 5 years into learning
� Excellent English listening comprehension
� Do not make many grammatical errors

Advanced Fluency Stage

� Reach this stage between 5 to 7 years after they start learning English
� English language proficiency is similar to that of a native English speaker

Input Hypothesis

When an ESL learner in one stage of acquisition is given instructional input that includes some structures characteristic of the next stage of acquisition and is also encouraged to use language reflective of that next, higher stage, the learner will advan

Jane Hill's "WORD-MES" Formula

Mnemonic device for the key steps in applying the stages of second language development to ESL instruction.
WORD (Preproduction Stage)
- Students need help with word selection, learning basic vocabulary words.
MODEL (Early Production Stage)
- Students ben

Articulation

Refers to the pronunciation of specific speech sounds and phonemes

Instructional strategies to promote early literacy development and reading comprehension

� Interactive Book Reading (3S Strategy, Wh- Questions, Expanded Book Reading)
� The 3N Strategy
� Extended Teaching
� Problem Solving
� Curriculum-Embedded Assessments

Interactive Book Reading

Should be used at least once per day with each child. Children participate either individually or in pairs. Done in addition to reading in large and small groups.
Purpose: Stimulate responsive, recirprocal instructional conversations between each child an

3N Strategy

1. Notice - teacher notices the level of an individual child's literacy skills
2. Nudge - teacher verbally nudges the child to do things that are a step above their current skill level
3. Narrate - teacher narrates what the child does, verbally describing

3S Strategy

1. See - teacher asks the child to see/look at a specific feature in a book, such as the main character.
2. Show - teachers asks the child to locate an image or word on a page.
3. Say - teacher asks the child to say a word/answer a question. During this s

Expanded Book Reading

Teachers can:
� ask children to predict the possible subject matter of the book
� discuss setting, characters, and events in a book with
� help children relate the story in a book to their own lives
� enhance the meaning of stories in a book by acting the

Picture Books

Both a genre and a format that encompasses various other genres. It includes wordless storybooks, which contains only pictures. Picture books integrate pictures and text to create a multimodal experience. The text is the most important feature. Illustrati

Poetry Books

Contain poems rather than prose. Can use concrete verse, free verse, and rhymed and metered verse. Poetry emphasizes the sounds and meanings of words and appeals to both readers' emotions and thoughts.

Traditional Literature

A form of oral storytelling. It includes fairy tales, fables, folklore, epics, and proverbs. "Once upon a time..." introductions and happy endings are common features. Modern fantasy is based on traditional literature, but it is original --- includes mode

Fantasy Stories

Imaginary, and often focus on good vs. evil conflicts, magic, and/or quests.

Non-fiction Informational Books

Include narrative, how-to, question and answer, activity, life cycle, and concept texts.

What abilities can children demonstrate to show they have phonological awareness?

� Recognize rhymes they hear
� Can rhyme words
� Can "count" the number of syllables in a word by clapping
� Can identify words with matching initial sounds

What abilities can children demonstrate to show they have phonemic awareness?

Children would be able to manipulate individual phonemes in words. For example, they can separate the sounds that make-up the word "cat

Listening Vocabulary

Words we must know to understand what we hear others say

Speaking Vocabulary

Words we use when we talk

Reading Vocabulary

Words we must know to comprehend what we read

Writing Vocabulary

Words we use when we write

Reading Fluency

The ability to read quickly, accurately, and smoothly both silently and aloud, and to read aloud with appropriate vocal intonations and expression

Why do teachers conduct correct words per minute assessments?

To assess whether a child may have a fluency issue. The main focus in on the rate the child reads.

To have good reading comprehension, children must be able to...

1. decode the words they read.
2. connect what they read to things they already know.
3. think about what they have read in depth.

Five basic reading components of phonological and phonemic awareness

Word Decoding
Phonics
Fluency
Vocabulary
Comprehension

Central Auditory Processing Disorder

Children with CAPD have problems attending to, listening to, and remembering spoken information, and often take longer to process auditory input.

Phonological Processing

The ability to see or hear a word, break it down to discrete sounds, and then associate each sound with letter(s) to that make up the word

Short-term Memory

Holds small pieces of information for short periods of time

Working Memory

Holds interim information in the mind for use during calculations
Processing new information so that it can be stored for a long period of time, searching for stored information, and retrieving information as it is needed are also functions of the working

Long-term Memory

Stores an enormous amount of information for many years

Indicators of Dyslexia (children's speech skills)

� Mispronouncing unfamiliar, long, or complex words
� Speech that is not fluent
� Speech the uses vague or non-specific wording
� Difficulty finding words while speaking

Indicators of Dyslexia (children's reading skills)

� Lack systematic strategies for reading new words
� Unable to read short function words (an; on; that)
� Miss parts of words when reading
� Mispronounce numerous words when reading aloud

Gentry's Stages of Children's Spelling Development

1. Pre-communicative Stage
2. Semiphonetic Stage
3. Phonetic Stage
4. Transitional Stage
5. Corret Stage

Pre-Communicative Stage

� Children use alphabet letters, but may not know the whole alphabet
� May not differentiate between upper case and lower case letters
� May not know that English is written from left to right
� They do not demonstrate knowledge of letter-to-sound corresp

Semi-phonetic Stage

� Children begin to comprehend letter-to-sound correspondences
� Frequently use simple logic to symbolize words with single letters. For example, using "U" for "you

Phonetic Stage

�Children use letters to represent all speech sounds they hear in words

Transitional Stage

Children begin the transition from phonetically spelling words according to their sounds to visually and structurally learning conventional word spellings.

Correct Stage

�Children know fundamental orthographic (spelling) rules
� They have learned many word spellings, and recognize misspellings.

Writing Skills Development

Scribbling and Drawing
Young children grasp crayons/pencils with their fists, exploring form, space, and line.
Letter-Like Forms and Shapes
They comprehend that written symbols represent meanings.
Letters
Children can form letters, and start writing them

POWER Strategy

Plan
Organize
Write
Edit
Revise

3 areas to focus on when rating a child's writing efforts to assess emerging writing skills

� Language Level
� Message Quality
� Directional Principles

Language Level

1.
Alphabetical
writes letters
2.
Word
writes any recognizable word
3.
Word Group
writes any two-word phrase
4.
Sentence
writes any simple sentence
5.
Punctuated Story
writes two or more related sentences
6.
Paragraphed Story
includes two themes

Message Quality

1. Student has concept of signs/symbols
2. Student has a concept that a message is communicated
3. Student copies a message
4. Student repeats sentence patterns like "This is a..."
5. Student tries to record their own ideas in writing
6. Student writes a

Directional Principles

1. Student does not demonstrate knowledge of directionality
2. Student exhibits partial directional knowledge (left to right, top to bottom)
3. Student reverses the direction
4. Student follows the correct directional pattern
5. Student uses correct direc

Expressive Language

The ability to produce language, such as speaking and writing

Receptive Language

The ability to comprehend speech, such as listening and reading

What is the difference between receptive language and expressive language?

Receptive language is the ability to understand words and language. Receptive language also is responsible for understanding concepts such as size, shape, color, time, and sentence structure.
Expressive language is the use of words, sentences, gestures, a

Blending

The process of saying the individual sounds in a word then running them together to make the word

CVC Words

Words that are made up of a consonant, vowel, and a consonant

Alliteration

Words that have the same sound beginning sound near one another

Digraph

Consonant Digraphs
- two letters that come together to make one sound
then (th), shoe (sh), wheel (wh), phone (ph), math (th)
Vowel Digraphs
- letter combinations in which two vowels together make a single sound
brain (ai), deep (ee), caught (au), soup (o

Diphthong

Sound that is made up of two separate vowel sounds within the same syllable.
boy (oy), bout (ou), boil (oi), bow (ow)

Prosody

Fluent readers use prosody (pitch, stress, and timing) to convey meaning when they read aloud.
The defining feature of expressive reading, comprises all of the variables of timing, phrasing, emphasis, and intonation that speakers use to help convey aspect

How can teachers provide literacy instruction to address individual students' needs and their growing knowledge and skills?

Teachers address these various needs by:
� providing differentiated instruction
� using the results of diagnostic assessments to help them identify students' strengths and needs
� forming small groups of students with similar needs and then planning instr

Formative Assessment

Monitor student learning during instruction and continues to occur throughout the lesson. Teachers use these to further inform their instruction.
Think-pair-share, exit cards, response cards

Benchmark Assessment

Evaluates student's performance at periodic intervals, frequently at the end of a grading period.
DIBELS, PA's benchmark assessment

Diagnostic Assessment

Assess a student's strengths, weaknesses, and knowledge prior to instruction.

Summative Assessment

Measure a student's achievement at the end of instruction. High stakes, worth many points.
End of chapter quiz/test

Screening Assessment

Assess to see if a student requires specialized assistance or services for developmental, physical, cognitive, or academic needs.

Factors that can disrupt fluency success

Limited phonics knowledge
Weak decoding skills
Lack of automaticity
Limited vocabulary and/or academic knowledge

Structural Analysis

AKA Morphemic Analysis
the ability to gain information about the meaning, pronunciation, and part of speech of new words from their prefixes, roots, and suffixes

When children learn that print is written and read from left to right and from top to bottom of the page, they are acquiring:

Directionality Concepts

The goal of reading and writing instruction in the primary grades is to ensure that all children reach the fluent stage of reading by

The end of 1st grade

Children are usually at the emergent stage of reading and writing in

Pre-K and Kindergarten

Children read words accurately, rapidly, and automatically and they read with expression at the

Fluent Stage

A first-grade teacher would like to provide scaffolding for students who are struggling to learn to read and write. An effective scaffolding technique would be

Interactive Writing
Interactive writing is a cooperative event in which text is jointly composed and written. The teacher uses the interactive writing session to model reading and writing strategies as he or she engages children in creating text.

The concept that stories have a beginning, middle, and end is referred to as

Story Structure

Phonemic awareness is the basic understanding that

speech is composed of a series of individual sounds.

When working with students who are English learners, researchers recommend

providing explicit instruction in phonemic awareness.

Preschool teachers can nurture young children's phonemic awareness with developmentally appropriate activities such as

singing songs and sharing word play books.

In the word, cat, the rime is

at

The strategy of identifying words by examining root words and affixes of longer words is called

Morphemic Analysis/Structural Analysis

The ability to orally read sentences expressively, with appropriate phrasing and intonation is known as

Prosody

The technique in which students practice reading stories to develop fluency is

Reader's Theatre

What are the components involved in reading fluency?

Speed, prosody, automaticity, and accuracy

Children select a topic, consider purpose, audience, and form and gather and organize ideas for writing during what stage of the writing process?

Prewriting Stage

When a teacher and students create a text together, they engage in

Interactive Writing

Children pour out ideas with little concern about spelling, punctuation, and other mechanical errors during the

Drafting Stage

Of the following, the best way to assess students' writing would be to use

Rubrics developed by the teacher

The students in a fourth grade class select their own writing topics and write independently while the teacher circulates to monitor their work. This class is participating in

Writing Workshop

Diagrams that provide organized visual representations of information from texts are

Graphic organizers

Informational books are organized using

expository text structures

A fourth grade teacher is compiling a text set for students to use during a thematic unit. As he selects books, this teacher has correctly decided to

select books written on a range of levels to fit the needs of all students

What is the difference between editing and revising?

Revising is the changing of ideas and editing is the stage in which you look for punctuation and spelling errors

Tricycle
Would you teach this word morphemically or syllabically?

Morphemically

A teacher wants to stress to her students the importance of tone and audience awareness when writing. Which of following activities would be appropriate for her fourth grade students?

Interviewing a kindergartener and a teacher

After her teacher discussed several books, Julie, a third grade student, decided to read Charlotte's Web. She formed a group with her friends to discuss that book. This student participated in a:

Literature Circle

How many morphemes are in the word "unwanted"?

3

A type of scoring guide which can assist teachers in assessing a child's writing is a

Rubric
(Holistic or Analytic)

Running Records can best be used to determine a child's:

Reading Fluency

A teacher helped his students understand the meaning of the prefix post by discussing terminology used in football games such as postseason and postgame. With this lesson, the teacher introduced his students to:

Morphemic Analysis

When readers create mental images of what they are reading, they are using the strategy of:

Visualizing

What is an effective way for a teacher to assess students' ability to apply comprehension strategies?

Ask students to think aloud and share their thinking as they read passages

During guided reading, students read books at their:

Instructional Level

What is the difference between a child's instructional reading level and their independent reading level?

An independent reading level is a level at which a child can read a text on his/her own with ease. The child makes hardly any errors when reading the text and has excellent comprehension of the story. The child can read the story alone with confidence.
An

What does an Informal Reading Inventory usually consists of?

Graded word lists and passages

When students go beyond literal comprehension and make connections that are not explicitly stated in a text, they are making:

Inferences

Allowing students to spell words that reflect their developmental knowledge of phonics is known as the practice of invented spelling. In which type of classroom, are you most likely to see this approach used

A classroom that is primarily focused on whole language approach.
The whole language approach describes a literacy philosophy which emphasizes that children should focus on meaning and strategy instruction. Not as much emphasis is put on the children bein

A teacher is observed showing children how to hold books and turn pages. They also learn that text is followed from left to right. The students engage in pretend reading to one another. This behavior would be observed in a classroom full of

Emergent Readers

Sometimes parents are not up-to-date on current instructional practices. Which would be a good way to explain invented spelling to a parent of a kindergarten student?

The use of letter-sound relationship to attempt to write words

A teacher reads through a big book and then reads through it again because students enjoy it so much. What follow up activity would promote oral language development?

Acting out the story with puppets

What should students work on if they have weak reading comprehension skills?

Go back and work on fluency

What should students work on if they have are bad at reading fluently?

Go back and work on decoding and phonics

A child pretend reads and is starting to work on print directionality and understands how to handle a book. All of these are skills of what?

Emergent Reading

What is phonemic awareness?

When a child is aware of the sounds only

What is the alphabetic principle?

when students put together the sound of letters w/ the actual letter

Onset/Rime

A syllable can normally be divided into two parts.
( 1 )
the onset
which consists of the initial consonant or consonant blend
( 2 )
the rime
which consists of the vowel and any final consonants
Strap
(Str) - Onset
(ap) - Rime

Graphemes vs. Phonemes

Graphemes are the written letters
Example --"B" "Ph"
Phonemes are the sounds that coordinate with the written letters (graphemes)
Example --"Bah" "Fa

How can teachers asses phonic skills?

By having students' read nonsense words

How can a teacher assess students' level of phonological awareness?

Word Recognition
How many words are in the sentence "I am happy?"
Rhyme
Do these word rhyme? "Big, Fig"
Syllable Blending
I am going to say a word in parts. Listen: o...pen. What word did I say?
Syllable Segmentation
Can you tell me the two word parts in

Word Segmentation

Breaking a sentence apart

Teacher has the class clap to every word in a poem. Why?

To teach the students word segmentation

When should you use decodable books (BOB books)?

When a child is good at sight words and phonics, but working towards fluency

Why give kids sight words and study them?

It helps them build their fluency

A child reads accurately, but slowly, what should you do?

Give them repeated passages

Reading Comprehension Skills

- Summarizing
- Sequencing
- Inferencing
- Comparing and contrasting
- Drawing conclusions
- Self-questioning
- Problem-solving
- Relating background knowledge
- Distinguishing between fact and opinion
- Finding the main idea, important facts, and support

Cloze Activity

Words are omitted from a passage and students are required to fill in the blanks. This procedure is incredibly useful in reading instruction because it can be easily done by any teacher and provides valuable reading comprehension information.

Five Finger Rule

A student picks a book to determine if it's on their reading level. Each word they miss, they hold up a finger. Once they get to 5, stop.

What are the 2 parts of structural analysis? Define them.

Syllabically
Breaking apart syllables (coffee)
Morphemically
Suffixes and prefixes for meaning (preheat and reheat)

Teacher reads a book about a child's crazy day. She stops to make connections. What is she showing her student?

She is modeling to her students how to monitor their reading comprehension

How does spelling lead to reading comprehension?

Spelling improves automaticity which improves fluency which is a skill needed to develop reading comprehension.

Teacher wants the students to do an independent reading assignment. She wants to scaffold, what would she do for a pre-reading activity?

Review the headings and subheadings

If you want to assess a students receptive language, how would you?

Give a set of oral directions and see if they can follow

How do you get kids interested in reading and helping select a book?

Pick a book that their interested in and is also on their reading level

When would be appropriate to use whole group instruction?

When teaching new concepts

If a student is reading quickly and above grade level and making mistakes, what should you do?

Have them slow down and check for understanding

A kid can spell vocabulary words, understand how it's used, etc., but w/ quiz, can't match definition w/ word. Why?

They can use word in context, but not exact definition of words

Student having trouble reading words that have silent consonant combinations, what would be good approach to help?

compare/contrast between words that do/do not have silent constant combos like no and know

What is an activity that can boost children's vocabulary development?

Playing with other kids

In keeping with Pennsylvania's PreK-4 learning standards in language arts, what writing skill would be most appropriate to include in language arts instruction at the first-grade level?

Revising writing by adding details or missing information

A kindergarten teacher reads aloud a poem that contains alliteration in each line. The teacher reads the poem twice, each time emphasizing the alliteration. On the third reading, the teacher invites the children to repeat each line exactly as the teacher

Phonological Awareness

Which of the following strategies would be most effective for a teacher to use as the introduction to a letter-formation lesson for a group of kindergarten students?

demonstrating to students how to form the target letter in the air while stating the motions and then repeating the process as the students imitate the teacher
I DO
WE DO
YOU DO

A second-grade teacher is beginning an integrated content-area unit on farming. As an introduction to the unit, the teacher helps students brainstorm words related to the concept of farming and guides students in creating a semantic map with the words. Th

deepening and clarifying students' knowledge of known words

A second-grade teacher is planning to read aloud a story to the class and would like to use this activity to reinforce and build on students' literary analysis skills. Which of the following strategies would likely be most appropriate and effective in ach

guiding students to identify the main characters and major events in the story

A third-grade teacher would like to monitor students' progress in meeting reading fluency benchmarks. Which of the following assessment strategies would be most appropriate and effective for the teacher to use for this purpose?

measuring students' average rate and accuracy while they read aloud an unfamiliar grade-level passage

A fourth-grade teacher would like to promote students' comprehension and critical analysis of literary texts by helping them draw more effective conclusions. The teacher could best achieve this goal by providing the students with explicit instruction and

citing evidence from a text to support their responses to the text.

Once a week, a second-grade teacher conducts a fluency check with each student. The teacher has the student read aloud an unfamiliar, appropriate-level passage for one minute as the teacher notes errors on a separate copy of the passage. The teacher calcu

rate

At the beginning of an inquiry-based multidisciplinary unit on birds of the region, a first-grade teacher creates a display in the classroom of a variety of objects related to the topic (e.g., bird nests, feathers, an audio recording of birdsong, photogra

having students describe, draw, and sort selected objects from the collection

Results from informal assessments indicate that a second-grade student who is a struggling reader still relies mostly on invented spellings when writing. Based on this evidence, which of the following types of interventions would best address the student'

providing intensive instruction in complex phonics patterns

A teacher is planning instruction to promote four-year-olds' development of skills related to Pennsylvania's PreK-4 learning standard about reading, analyzing, and interpreting text. With children at this developmental level, which of the following approa

helping the children tell one thing they learned from a nonfiction text

A first-grade teacher explains that he is going to read a story aloud and he wants students to consider how the story makes them feel. Afterward, he prompts the students to recall and discuss specific words and phrases the author used to evoke particular

develop an awareness of a story's tone.

A group of primary-grade teachers is reviewing potential core instructional materials for teaching beginning-reading skills. The most important selection criteria for the teachers to consider would be to ensure that the materials:

are aligned with relevant state learning standards.

Which of the following words contains a diphthong?
A. anchor
B. boiled
C. measure
D. truths

B. boiled

A prekindergarten teacher regularly writes students' comments on chart paper during whole-class discussions and rereads the comments to the class. This practice supports young children's emergent literacy development primarily by promoting their:

awareness of the relationship between print and spoken language.

A third-grade student is having difficulty reading words and syllables that contain complex letter combinations, which is affecting her comprehension of grade-level texts. For example, the student reads the word stretch as [st] [re?t] [ch] and the word pl

providing the student with instruction and practice decoding consonant clusters as chunks

A second-grade student frequently makes errors such as reading the words taped as tapped, hoping as hopping, and shines as shins when reading aloud. Which of the following approaches to addressing the student's difficulty is likely to be most effective?

providing the student with explicit review and practice reading and spelling CVCe words that contain inflectional endings

A second-grade teacher is planning reading instruction at the beginning of the school year and would like to determine the entry-level skills of individual students in key areas of reading. Which of the following types of assessments would be most appropr

an informal phonics inventory

A prekindergarten teacher helps students memorize a poem and recite it chorally. The teacher could best use this activity to build a foundation for which of the following literacy skills?

prosodic reading

Which of the following activities would best help fourth graders apply their knowledge of oral language to promote their understanding of punctuation conventions used in writing?

reading their writing aloud, making note of pauses and intonation patterns