joints
the point where bones meet
fibrous joints
joints that allow no movement
cartilaginous joints
joints that allow little movement
synovial joints
joints that allow for significant movement
bone
rigid structure for anchoring muscles
tendons
(in the elbow) attach biceps to scapula near the humerus and radius; attach triceps to scapula and humerus near the shoulder and to the ulna
spongy bone
bone that provides great strength without too much mass
ligaments
keep bones in the correct relative position
biceps
muscles that bend the arm (flexion)
triceps
muscles that straighten arm (extension)
cartilage
allows for easy movement because of smooth surface; absorbs shock and distributes load; is tough, smooth tissue that covers the regions of bone in the joint; prevents friction by preventing contact between regions of bone in the joint
synovial membrane
secretes synovial fluid and keeps it within the joint
synovial fluid
fills a cavity in the joint between the cartilages on the ends of the bones; provides food, oxygen, and lubrication (preventing friction) to cartilage
antagonistic muscles
they produce opposite movements at a joint; when one contracts, the other relaxes
joint capsule
tough ligamentous covering the joint, seals the joint and holds in the synovial fluid and helps it prevent dislocation
flexion
bending
extension
straightening
sarcoplasmic reticulum
modified version of the endoplasmic reticulum, it wraps around every myofibril and conveys the signal to contract; stores calcium and releases calcium ions into myofibrils when muscles contact
myofibrils
parallel, elongated structures with alternating light and dark bands; in the centre of each light band is a disc shaped structure (z-line)
sacromere
located between one z-line and the next (a repeating unit of a striated muscle); it is the functional unit of the myofibril
actin filaments
thin protein and attached to the z-line
myosin filaments
thick protein, have heads; interdigitated with actin filaments at both ends and occupy the centre of the sarcomere; surrounded by six actin filaments and forms cross bridges with them during muscle contraction
tropomyosin
regulatory protein which blocks the binding sites on actin; are removed when calcium ions bind to troponin
troponin
sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium ions which bind to this protein, causing tropomyosin to move and expose the actin's binding sites
skeletal muscles
attached the the skeleton; has light and dark bands; contracts longitudinally
sarcolemma
hold muscle fibres together; membrane
behaviour
the way in which an animal reacts and related to stimuli and the environment
innate behaviour
instinctive, genetically based; not modified by the individual or affected by the environment; generally uniform among the population; beneficial behaviours evolve through natural selection
learned behaviour
based on experience; modified by the individual by trial and error and highly affected by the environment; high variation within the population; capacity to learn may be product of natural selection
stimulus
a change in external or internal environment that is detected by a receptor and elicits a response
response
a change in behaviour in reaction to a stimulus
reflec
a rapid and unconscious response (ex. pain); the product of natural selection; allow for danger avoidance with minimal harm to the organism
pain reflex
innate, moderated by the spinal cord rather than the brain; bypasses the brain= shorter paths, faster responses
habituation
(non-associative learning) getting used to repeated stimulus, such as background noises
sensitization
(non-associative learning) increased response to a repeated stimulus
associative learning
includes observation, classical conditioning, operant conditioning (reward and punishment), imprinting
classical conditioning
associative learning that pairs stimulus with response; results in an automatic response to a stimulus
imprinting
learning which occurs at key periods of development and susceptibility to learning
unconditional response
automatic response to a stimulus
neutral stimulus
does not elicit response
conditioning
neutral and unconditioned stimuli applied together
conditioned stimulus and response
ringing bell results in salivation, even without food oresent
birdsong
birds are born with an innate template song--> refined through learning; strong indicator of reproductive fitness
dialects
small regional variations in the developed song
imprinting in animals
(associative learning) there is a sensitive period early in a chick's development where imprinting takes place; vital to the individual's survival and reproductive success; they imprint the correct song to 'fit in'
memory
the process of encoding, storing, and accessing information
encoding
converting information into a form in which it can be stored by the brain
short-term memory
memory that lasts up to a minute and may or may not lead to long-term memory; retained for indefinite periods of time