Teams
two or more people working interdependently over a period of time to accomplish common goals related to some task-oriented purpose
Are teams good or bad for performance?
depends for teams vary widely in terms of who is involved, what is being worked on, etc.
Advantages of Team Performance
increased creativity
increase performance
better decisions, fewer errors
increasing commitment (embeddedness); social belonging
Disadvantages of Team Performance
conflict
groupthink
compounded failure
social loafing
lack of individual recognition
conformity
coordination loss
Groupthink
loss of individual creativity due to being in a group
The IPO Model
inputs --> processes --> outcomes
Inputs
what goes into a team
team types, task types, team composition, interdependence
Inputs: Team Types
work, management, parallel, project, action
Inputs: Task Types
disjunctive, additive, conjunctive
Disjunctive
the strongest performer drives success; 1 strong person
ex: solving a math problem
Additive
average performance drives success; other people are adding to the outcome
ex: selling Girl Scout Cookies
Conjunctive
the weakest performer drives success
ex: mountain climbing
Inputs: Interdependence
task, goal , outcome
Interdependence - Task
the degree to which team members interact with and rely on other team members for the info, materials, and resources needed to accomplish work
pooled, sequential, reciprocal, comprehensive
Interdependence - Goal
when team members have a shared vision of the team's goal and align their individual goals with that vision
Interdependence - Outcome
when team members share rewards that the team earns
Inputs: Team Composition
member roles, KSAO, personality, diversity, size
Diversity
surface/deep level
heterogeneous/homogenous
Surface Level
age, race, gender, easily observed
Deep Level
personality, values, beliefs, knowledge; learned through interaction
Heterogeneous
more creative but lack of cohesion and execution
Homogenous
quick decisions and cohesion but lack of creativity and potentially premature consensus on decisions
Processes
concepts that only occur as a result of working in teams
Process Gains
getting more from the team than you would expect based on individual capabilities
ex: synergy, development, resource pooling, cooperation
Synergy - Process Gains
effectively utilizing everyones's skills
Development - Process Gains
working through problems together and learned how to development
Resource Pooling - Process Gains
utilizing everyone's resources
ex: we can buy more pizzas with $20 from everyone together then just buy one on your own
Processes Losses
getting less from the team than you would expect base on individual capabilities
ex: coordination issues, groupthink, social loafing, conformity
Social Loafing - Process Losses
decrease in individual effort as group size increases
Conformity - Process Losses
not wanting to voice their different opinions and speak up of risk of not being liked
Groupthink - Process Losses
a tendency to avoid a critical evaluation of ideas the group favors;it's as if the group is thinking like it's one person instead of many unique individuals.
ex: The Space Shuttle Challenger video
Groupthink Symptoms
overestimating the teams ability
close-mindedness
conformity pressues
Proccesses that can be either good or bad
norms, routines, cohesiveness, conflict (task & personal)
Relationship Conflict
I don't like you; always bad
Task Conflict
how should we do this?; can be good depending on if relationship conflict exists
Ways to minimize process losses
write down opinions anonymously before discussing
hold individuals accountable for their work
ensure group is not too big
assign Devil's Advocate role
split group into two sub-groups and have both work on the same problem
How to help promote gains
limit team size
maintain individual accountability
establish non-redundant responsibilities
remain open-minded
being realistic about team's ability
limit conformity pressures (psychological safety)
relationship conflict (always bad) vs. task conflict (can
Outcomes
the result of the team
task outcomes and team viability
Task Outcomes
completion and quality
Team Viability
a team's capacity for the sustainability and growth required for success in future performance episodes
- team members satisfied with each other & the team
- would like to work together again
- desire to make the team better
Team Type: Work
team working together day-to-day towards general productivity
Team Type: Management
people representing different parts of the organization working towards the common goal of organization effectiveness
Team Type: Parallel
individuals working together outside of their normal tasks (ex: party planning committee)
Team Type: Project
individuals with different skills and backgrounds working towards a one time outcome
Team Type: Action
team that performs tasks that are normally limited in duration
sports teams or bands that work towards completing complex tasks over a long duration
Team Development Stages
1. forming
2. storming
3. norming
4. performing
5. adjourning
Team Development Stage: Forming
understanding everyone's role on the team
Team Development Stage: Storming
members remain committed to ideas they bring with them to the team; working through pre-team differences; two
Team Development Stage: Norming
you develop standards and cooperation levels
members realize that they need to work together to accomplish team goals and begin to cooperate; three
Team Development Stage: Performing
members are comfortable working within their roles and make progress toward their goals; getting the task done four
Team Development Stage: Adjourning
members experience anxiety and other emotions as they disengage; five
Task Type: Pooled
members work independently and work is piled up
lowest degree of coordination
Task Type: Sequential
members perform different tasks in a sequence and members depend on the members before them
Task Type: Reciprocal
members interact only with a subset of other members to complete the teams work
Task Type: Comprehensive
members have a great deal of discretion of what they do and with whom they interact
highest level of interaction and coordination
Methods of Decision Making
programmed and non-programed
Programed
automatically know what to do, less thought out process; largely based on experience & intuition
ex: driving to work everyday, you know the route and take it everyday
Non-Programmed
response to new, unknown situations, requires explicit thinking, weighing of facts, etc.; should ideally rely on rational decision making
ex: going somewhere new and have not had this experience
Decision Making Approaches
economic and OB/psychology
Economic: Normative Approach
evaluate the alternatives, choose the best or most rational one; there should be a clear "right" decision
OB/Psychology Approach: Bounded Rationally
the notion that decision makers do not have the ability or resources to process al available information and alternatives to make an optimal decision
Prone to Decision Making Bias
selective perception
projection bias
availability bias
misconceptions of chance
insensitivity to base rates
insensitivity to sample size
misunderstanding conjunctive events
framing effects
escalation of commitment
emotional bias
Selective Perception
look for information that only we want, our frame of reference biases how we see things
ex: a marketing student would use a marketing approach
Projection Bias
assume other people see the same way we do
Availability Bias
ease of recall and retrievability
Availability Bias: Ease of Recall
giving preference to information and events that are more recent, that were observed personally, and that are more memorable
ex: being afraid to fly after hearing about a plane crash or employee yearly performance based on a recent event or big project
Availability Bias: Retrievability
retrieving pieces of information more quickly than other pieces as a result of sharing something common or being grouped together
ex: think everyone you know vs. think of everyone on your sports team or groups of car dealerships, gas stations and shopping
Misconceptions of Chance
treating independent events as a series of events and expecting a balanced pattern
ex: roulette, if questions 1, 2 and 3 were choice A there's NO WAY question 4 is also A
Insensitivity to Base Rates
when presented with base rate (general) information and specific information, we tend to focus on the specific
ex: two of my friends won the lottery, so there's a good chance I will too
Insensitivity to Sample Size
making decisions based on data from a sample that is too small to be valid
ex: this player scored 3 goals in two games, therefore he is likely to score 123 goals over an 82 game season
Misunderstanding Conjunctive Events
we tend to overestimate the likelihood of success when looking at events that rely on each other
ex: I'll be on time to class even though I have to get up on time, avoid the line at Starbucks, beat the traffic, and find decent parking
Framing Effects
people are more accepting of risk and taking action when the outcome is framed negatively; we avoid risk when the outcome is framed positively (maintain the status quo)
ex: late registration penalty vs. early registration discount or gaining 2% market sha
Escalation of Commitment
maintaining commitment to a failing course of action despite clear evidence that a negative outcome is imminent; emotional attachment
ex: we can "save" this project if we invest more money into it or I'm going to eat this entire XL pizza even though it wi
Escalation of Commitment: why does this happen?
pychological/social causes: peer pressure, saving face, personal interests, emotions
project-related causes: delayed return on investment, setbacks attributed to "temporary" causes
Emotional Biases
we compare our outcomes to the outcomes of others and expect fairness
Attribution
finding causes for someone's behavior; they influence how we react
Attribution Cues
distinctiveness
consistency
consensus
Attribution Cues: Distinctiveness
does the individual do this in many different situations?; looking at the behavior in many different aspects
ex: late to class, late to everything
Attribution Cues: Consistency
want to see if the person is always acting in that kind of behavior
ex: in class and someone is late to class once vs. every single time
Attribution Cues: Consensus
looking at behavior over multiple people
ex: is everyone late to class or only one person
Internal Attribution
blame the person, not the situation
high consistency and low distinctiveness and consensus
External Attribution
blame the situation, not the person
high and distinctiveness and high consensus but low consistency
Fundamental Attribution Bias
attributing someone else's behavior to internal characteristics rather than external influences
Self-Serving Bias
we are kinder to ourselves than to others, often citing internal reasons for our success rather than external reasons - and external reasons for our failures rather than internal reasons!
Intuition
emotional, quick, gut decisions
they are programmed
better in your domain of expertise
usually tactic knowledge and learned
When should you use intuition?
in crisis situations especially if you're the expert
tacit knowledge because of experience
more likely to be accurate in a programmed decision
used in emergency situations, as long as it is based off of learning, etc.
Contingencies of Reinforcement
positive reinforcement
negative reinforcement
punishment
extinction
Positive Reinforcement
increase desired behavior by giving some type of reward
when a positive outcome follows an unwanted behavior
Negative Reinforcement
increase desired behavior by taking away an undesired action
when an unwanted outcome is removed following a desired behavior
Punishment
act in an unwanted behavior and receive an unwanted outcome
when an unwanted outcome follows and unwanted behavior
Extinction
when there is the removal of a consequence following an unwanted behavior
Stress
a response to demands that depletes a person's capacities or resources
Stressors
environmental events that trigger stress responses
not all of theses are bad (challenged)
Strains
negative effects when stress overwhelms resources
all of these are bad
People react differently to, and are more or less likely to be exposed to, stressors...
differential reactivity and exposure
Differential Reactivity
you are stressed, but you are going to respond in a negative or positive way
Differential Exposure
about whether you view and event as a stressor or not; depends on individual
is it a problem or a stressor
Hinderance Stressor
demands that are perceived as hindering progress towards accomplishment or goal attainment; often met with negative emotions; bad stessor
role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload, daily hassles
Challenged Stressors
demands that are perceived as opportunities for learning, growth, and achievement which can lead to positive emotions
time pressure, work complexity, work responsibility
Types of Strains
physiological
psychological
behavioral
Physiological Strain
backache, physical exhaustion, sleep disturbance, appetite loss, etc.)
Psychological Strain
fear, emotional exhaustion, anxiety, etc.
Behavioral Strain
alcohol/drug abuse, stress-eating, pulling out hair, etc.
Coping with Stress
emotion-focused cognitive
and behavioral approach
problem-focused cognitive and behavioral approach
Problem-Focused Behavioral Approach
work harder
seek assistance
acquire additional resources
Emotion-Focused Behavioral Approach
engage in alternative activity
seek emotional support
vent anger
Problem-Focused Cognitive Approach
strategize
change priorities
Emotion-Focused Cognitive Approach
avoid distance and ignore
reappraise or search for positives
Emotions as Signals of Social Information
anger
gratitude
embarrassment
sadness
guilt/shame
contempt
Anger
to induce others to adjust bad behaviors; a means of punishment
Gratitude
to induce others to continue good behaviors; a means of reward
Embarrassment
to elicit forgiveness, induce liking
Sadness
to elicit sympathy
Guilt/Shame
to signal regret without the need for formal punishment; to repair a realtionship
Contempt
to signal someone's lower status
Emotions Leaders Should Display when Apologizing
they should display shame, head down, slouched shoulder, covering face
more likely to be forgiven, to be trusted again, to be viewed as displaying appropriate emotions
Emotional Labor
regulation of emotions to conform to workplace expectations (particularly in customer-facing jobs)
surface and deep acting
Surface Acting
change what emotions you display
an emotion-focused behavioral response when in response to a stressor
ex: putting on a smile for an angry customer
always bad - can easily detect fake emotion
Deep Acting
change what emotions you feel
an emotion-focused cognitive response when in response to a stressor
example: sympathizing with an angry customer
good for the short-term (customers appreciate the real emotions) but leads to long-term problems like feeling e
Emotional Intelligence (EI)
the ability to recognize/manage emotions
presumably better able to do emotional labor and handle stress
Will EI help you at work?
not certain yet but the answer is likely it be "it depends"
does your job actually require EI? If not, probably irrelevant
Mayer & Salovey's 4-Stage EI Model
perceive --> facilitate --> understand --> manage
Perceive
ability to perceive/express emotion in self/others
Facilitate
awareness that different emotions facilitate different thoughts
Understand
understand causes/consequences of emotions in others
Manage
the management of emotions (of self/others) to achieve a goal
pulls all prior stages together to achieve a goal
ex: recognizing you or your partner is in a bad mood and doing something to change it before a social event
Burnout
the emotional, mental and physical exhaustion that results from having to cope with stressful demands on an ongoing basis
Organizations can reduce stress and strains by
flex time (most effective)
working from home
child care
maternity leave
Leadership
the interpersonal use of power and influence to motivate others to achieve goals that represent the value of the leader
Trait Approach
leaders possess stable characteristics that set them apart from non-leaders
studying great leaders and we will find out what the traits are:
extraverted, confident, intelligent, charismatic
leaders are born, not made - you can't "train" leadership
Problems with Trait Approach
leader behaviors can be trained
charismatic leader behaviors improved employee commitment and performance
ignores context (think of traits of leader of army unit vs. traits of manager at Walmart)
doesn't uniquely identify leaders: followers can also be sm
Behavioral Approach
what makes a leader is not his/her traits but how he/she behaves
we can train people to behave like leaders
Behavioral Approach Two Main Views
day to day behaviors: consideration/initiating structure
transactional/transformational
Day to Day Behavoirs: Consideration
person-focused
membership - mixing with employees
integration - reducing conflict, including everyone
communication
recognition
representation - defending group, acting on its behalf
Day to Day Behavoirs: Initiating Structure
task focused
initiation - starting new tasks
organization - structuring and coordinating tasks
production - goal-setting, providing incentives
Consideration
more strongly related to follower satisfaction (with job and leader)
Initiating Structure
more strongly related to follower motivation and perceived leader effectiveness
Transactional
leaders behavoirs range from: laissez-faire to contingent reward
Laissez-Faire
hands-off, avoidance of responsibility, power and influence underutilized
Passive Management by Exception
leads by taking corrective action after mistakes have happened
"If it ain't broke, don't fix it.
Active Management by Exception
leads by taking corrective action before mistakes happen
"Something doesn't seem right here.
Contingent Reward
more active, exchange of rewards for adequate performance; establishes goals and expectations
"Do this task, and you'll get a reward.
Transformational
inspiring followers to strive toward higher goals or a vision that transcends their immediate self-interests
idealized influence/charisma, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration
Idealized Influence/Charisma
serving as charismatic role model to followers
Inspirational Motivation
articulation of inspiring vision to followers
"A happy employee is a productive employee"
"Business should be fun
Intellectual Stimulation
stimulating creativity by questioning and challenging
"How's your dad doing?
Individualized Consideration
attending to individual needs of followers
Outcomes of Transformational and Transactional Leadership:
transformational leadership highest correlation with...
- satisfaction with the leader
- leader effectiveness
contingent reward: highest correlation with follower job satisfaction
laissez-faire: highest correlation with dissatisfaction with the leader
Followership
leaders do not exist without followers
followers "grant" leadership to an individual, otherwise, 'leaders' are just crazy nuts dancing in a field
we are more likely to "grant" leadership in certain circumstances - particularly to those who fit our "protot
Agreement between leader and employee on quality of relationship
even if agreeing the relationship is bad - implies mutual understanding
Disagreement between leader and employee on quality of relationship
can lead to worse outcomes even compared to an agreed-upon bad relationship
if you hate your boss, would you rather he thinks you're friends and he always comes by to talk to you, or that he stay out of your hair?
Leader Decision Making Styles
autocratic
consultative
facilitate
delegative
Autocratic Style
the leader makes the decision alone without asking for the opinions or suggestions of the employees in the work unit
Consultative Style
the leader presents the problem to individual employees or a group of employees, asking for their opinions and suggestions before making the decision
Facilitative Style
the leader presents the problem to a group and seeks consensus on a solution, with their own opinion being weighed as much as everyone else's
Delegative Style
the leader gives an individual employee or group of employees the responsibility for making the decision within some set of specified boundary conditions
Leader Decision-Making Styles in order from high follower control to high leader control
delegative, facilitative, consultative, autocratic
Situational Approaches for Leadership
substitutes for leadership
leader-member exchange
Substitues for Leadership
sometimes a leader is not needed; situations can restrict the influence of a leader
Leader-Member Exchange
you have different relationships with different people