Astigmatism:
Reduction in visual acuity due to irregularity in the cornea or lens.
Cataract:
Condition in which lens has lost its transparency.
Color Blindness:
Condition in which a person is unable to distinguish certain colors.
Conductive Deafness:
Deafness resulting from damage to the outer or middle ear that blocks the transfer of vibrations.
Glaucoma:
Condition characterized by increased pressure due to impaired re-absorption of aqueous humor.
Hyperopia:
Clinical term for farsightedness.
Myopia:
Clinical term for nearsightedness.
Nerve Deafness:
Deafness resulting from damage to the cochlea or along auditory nerve pathway.
Presbyopia:
Type of hyperopia that develops with age.
Fibrous Layer:
Outermost layer of the eye including the cornea and sclera.
Sclera:
White of the eye" containing dense fibrous connective tissue.This layer is the thickest.
Vascular Layer:
Middle layer of the eye that includes the Ciliary body, iris, and the choroid.
Choroid:
Vascular layer that separates the fibrous layer and neural layer. Contains melanocytes.
Iris:
Contains blood vessels, pigment cells, and two layers of smooth muscle.
Neural Layer:
Innermost layer that includes the pigmented part and neural part as well as the retina.
Photoreceptors:
Cells that detect light.
Rods:
Highly sensitive to light, allow us to see in dim lighting.
Cones:
Provide us with color vision.
Fovea centralis:
Sharpest vision: large quantity of cones and no rods.
Anterior Chamber:
Extends from the cornea to the iris and contains aqueous humor.
Aqueous humor:
Travels from the anterior chamber through the pupil, and across the retina.
Posterior Chamber:
Between the iris and the ciliary body and the lens.
Canal of Schlemm:
passageway that drains aqueous humor to the veins in the sclera.
Vitreous Humor:
Located in the posterior cavity; gelantinous like.
Lens:
Located posterior to the cornea.
Accommodation:
The changing shape of the lens in order to keep the focal length.
Visual Acuity:
Clarity of vision.
Emmetropia:
Normal vision 20/20
External Ear:
Includes the fleshy and cartilaginous auricle or pinna, external acoustic meatus and ends at the tympanic membrane.
Ceruminous Glands:
Glands among the external acoustic meatus that secrete a waxy material that helps prevent foreign objects from traveling further into the ear.
Middle Ear:
Includes tympanic cavity, auditory tube (eustachian tube), and auditory ossicles.
Auditory Ossicles:
Malleus, Incus, and Stapes.
Inner Ear:
Senses equilibrium and hearing. Includes: vestibule, semicircular canal, and cochlea.
Cochlea:
spiral shaped, bony chamber that consists of the cochlear duct. Hair cells are located in the organ of Corti.
Vestibule:
Utricle and Saccule that contain receptors that provide sensations of gravity.
Ampulla:
Contains receptors called crista.
Cupula:
Each crista is bound to this gelatinous structure.
Otoliths:
Ear Stone
Olfaction:
CN I
Vision:
CN II
Static Balance:
Up, down or side
Hearing & Balance:
CN VIII
Exocrine System:
Contains ducts: Salivary, mammary, sweat and sebaceous.
Hormone:
molecules released by one cell/ tissue type carried in the blood to a specific target receptor.
Protein Hormones:
water soluable; example is insulin.
Lipid Hormones:
Lipid soluable; example is testosterone.
Diabetes I:
Beta cells attacked & no longer produce insulin.
Diabetes II:
Can be controlled by diet and lifestyle. Receptors become "resistant" and no longer function properly.
Adenohypophysis:
Anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Releases seven hormones: TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, PRL, GH, MSH.
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH):
Targets thyroid gland & is regulated by TRH. Secretes thyroid hormone.
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH):
Targets suprarenal cortex & is regulated by CRH. Secretes glucocorticoids.
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH):
Targets cells of ovaries & testes & is regulated by GnRH. Stimulates estrogen in ovaries and sperm maturation in testes.
Luteinizing Hormone (LH):
Targets follicle cells of ovaries & testes & is regulated by GnRH. Stimulates ovulation and secretion of progesterone in ovaries. In testes, secretes testosterone.
Prolactin (PRL):
Targets mammary glands & is regulated by PRF. Stimulates production of milk.
Growth hormone (GH):
Targets all cells and is regulated by GH-RH. Stimulates growth, protein synthesis, lipid mobilization, and catabolism.
Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH):
Targets melanocytes & is regulated by MSH-IH. Stimulates an increase in melanin synthesis in the epidermis.
Neurohypophysis:
Does not secrete hormones** only stores ADH and OXT.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH):
Targets the kidneys and stimulates re-absorption of water causing an increase in blood volume pressure.
Oxytocin (OXT):
Targets uterus & mammary glands in females, and ductus deferens & prostate glands in males. In females causes labor contractions and milk ejection. In males causes contractions of ductus deferens & prostate gland.
Hypophyseal Portal System:
From one capillary bed to another.
Corticosteriods:
W/in Adrenal Cortex: Sweet (glucocorticoids), Salt (aldosterone), and Sex (androgens).
White Blood Cells (WBC):
Also called leukocytes: plays important role in immune system. 5 types: Lymphocytes, Monocytes/macrophages, Neutrophils, Eosinophils, and Basophils.
Granulocytes:
Contain granules: Lymphocytes & Monocytes.
Lymphocytes:
Includes T- cells & B-cells
Monocytes:
Mature into macrophages which engulf foreign objects.
Agranulocytes:
W/o granules: Neutrophils, Basophils, and Eosinophils.
Neutrophils:
phagocytic: engulf pathogens & release cytotoxic enzymes.
Eosinophils:
phagocytic, reduce inflammation: occurs in allergic and parasitic situations.
Basophils:
inflammation: release histamine
Hematopoiesis:
making of blood.
Myeloid Stem Cell:
3 possible routes: RBCs, Megakaryocytes (platelets), and agranulocytes.
Lymphoid Stem Cell:
Either T-cells or B-cells.
Erythropletin (EPO):
hormone from the kidney that triggers the production of RBCs.
Blood Doping:
Adding your own RBCs prior to something in order increase oxygen levels. Increases viscosity which puts a strain on the heart. Potential for stroke or MI.
Antigen:
any molecule that activates immune system.
Antibody:
Y-shaped protein that is specific to an antigen. 2 types: surface antigen & self antigen.
Blood Type A
contains A antigens and B antibodies
Blood Type B
contains B antigens and A antibodies
Blood Type O
contains no antigens but both A and B antibodies.
Positive Blood Type:
presence of the RH antigen
Negative Blood Type:
lack of RH antigen
Clumping:
agglutination: antibody to antigen binding that causes the blood to "clump
Red Blood Cells:
Also called Erythrocytes; most abundant and are specialized for the transport of oxygen.
Platelets:
small, membrane-bound cell fragments that contain enzymes and other substances used in clotting.
Plasma:
contains Albumin, Globulin, Fibrinogen, and plasma proteins.
Albumins:
Most abundant, major contributors of osmotic pressure within the plasma and transportation of fatty acids, thyroid hormone, and some steroid hormones.
Immunoglobulins:
Antibodies: IgA, IgG, IgE, IgD, IgM.
Fibrinogen:
Functions in clotting; under some circumstances molecules interact and form large strands of fibrin which forms the basic framework for a blood clot.
Biliverdin:
green in color, each heme unit is stripped of its iron.
Bilirubin:
Biliverdin is converted into this. Yellowish pigment (think jaundice)
Erythropoiesis:
Production of red blood cells occurs only in red bone marrow or myeloid tissue.
T cells:
responsible for cell-mediated immunity: specific defense mechanism. T cells attack foreign objects.
B cells:
responsible for humoral immunity: specific defense mechanism. Production of antibodies that attack foreign objects.
NK cells:
Natural Killer cells are responsible for immune surveillance- detection and destruction of abnormal tissues.
Lymphopoiesis:
production of lymphocytes in red bone marrow.
Thrombocytopiesis:
production of platelets: occurs in bone marrow.
Hemostasis:
process in which bleeding is inhibited. Occurs in three phases: Vascular phase, Platelet phase, and Coagulation.
Vascular Phase:
Endothelial cells contract and release chemical factors that stimulate smooth muscle contraction and promote vascular spasm. Plasma membranes become "sticky
Platelet Phase:
Platelets attach to "sticky" surfaces and expose collagen fibers. Close break in vessel.
Coagulation Phase:
AKA blood clotting: fibrin network grows and covers platelet plug and passing blood cells become trapped forming a blood clot.
Clot Retraction:
Platelets contract and entire clot retracts.
Second Messenger System:
Acts as enzyme activator, inhibitor, or cofactor= affects rate of specific reaction. Examples: cAMP, cGMP, and calcium ions.
Pancreas
Pancreas releases hormones that control glucose levels. Glucagon and insulin are produced in the islets.
RH & IH
come from neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus.
Depolarization & smell:
1. binding of oderant to receptor (G-protein) which activates adenyly cyclase which converts ATP to cAMP.
2. cAMP opens sodium channel in plasma membrane= depolarization
3. Once depolarization has occurred an action potential is triggered.
Pathogen:
disease causing
Innate/ General: non specific:
physical barriers, phagocytosis, fever/inflammation, interferon, complement system.
Adaptive: specific:
includes CD4 (helper T cells) and CD8 (cytotoxic T cells)
Passive Immunity:
produced by transfer of antibodies from one source to another.
Active Immunity:
develops after exposure to an antigen.
Antigen-presenting cells (APC):
specialized cells responsible for activating T cell defenses. Includes: monocytes/macrophages and dendritic cells.
CD4:
Helper T cells=> respond to antigens presented by Class II MHC proteins.
CD8:
Cytotoxic T cells => respond to antigens presented by Class I MHC proteins.
Class I:
proteins in all nucleated cells that signal for destruction of abnormal cell. **common reason for rejected donated organs.
Class II:
proteins only present in antigen- presenting cells and lymphocytes.
Primary Response:
Initial response to antigen. Antibody titer in plasma does not peak until long time being exposed. Actives suppressor T cells and then B cells to create defense against antigen.
Secondary Response:
Occurs much quicker once antigen is exposed another time. B cells differentiate into plasma cells and release large quantities of antibodies which fight off antigen. **reason we don't usually get sick from same antigen (ex: "cold")