Two branches of science
Anatomy and physiology
Anatomy
study of body structures
and their relationships
means to cut apart
physiology
study of how body parts function
what it (the structure) does and how it works
BRANCH OF PHYSIOLOGY
STUDY OF:
Embryology
first 8 weeks of development
after fertilization of a human egg
Development Biology
complete development of an individual
fertilization to death
Cell Biology
cellular structure and functions
Histology
microscopic structure of tissues
Gross anatomy
structures can be examined without microscope
Systemic anatomy
structure of specific systems of the body
ex: nervous, respiratory
Regional anatomy
specific regions of the body
ex: head or chest
Surface anatomy
surface markings of the body
to understand internal anatomy
through visualization and palpation
Imaging anatomy
internal body structures that can be visualized w medical imaging for clinical analysis and medical intervention
Pathological anatomy
structural changes (gross to microscopic)
associated w disease
BRANCHES OF PHYSIOLOGY
STUDY OF:
Molecular physiology
functions of individual molecules
ex: proteins, DNA
Neurophysiology
functional properties of nerve cells
Endocrinology
hormones and how they control body functions
hormones: chemical regulators in the blood
Cardiovascular physiology
functions of the heart and blood vessels
Immunology
body defense against disease-causing agents
Respiratory physiology
functions of the air passageways and lungs
Renal physiology
functions of kidneys
Exercise physiology
changes in cell and organ functions
due to muscular activity
Pathophysiology
functional changes associated w disease and aging
function reflects structure
what an organ does, depends on how its made
SIX DIFFERENT LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
1. chemical level
2.cellular level
3. tissue level
4. organ level
5. system level
6. organismal level
1. CHEMICAL LEVEL
basic level (ABC's)
everything on earth made of atoms and molecules
only living thing can make the BIOMOLECULES: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
these biochemicals are organized into cells in all living things
atoms essential for maintaining life
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, sulfur
2. CELLULAR LEVEL
cell is the structure and function unit of a living body
(words)
3. TISSUE LEVEL
cells w similar structure, function and common origin make up a tissue
tissues
groups of cells and materials surrounding them that work together
4 types of tissues:
1. epithelial
2. connective
3. muscle
4. nervous tissues
epithelial tissue
covers body surfaces
lines hollow organs
connective tissue
connects/supports/protects body organs while distributing blood vessels to other tissues
muscle tissue
contracts to make body parts move and generates heat
nervous tissue
carries info from one part of the body to another through nerve impulses
4. ORGAN LEVEL
two or more tissues working together performing a specific function
ex: stomach, heart
5. SYSTEMIC LEVEL (organ system level)
two or more organs working together to perform a life-function
ex: digestion
6. ORGANISMAL LEVEL (the living body)
all organ systems working together to keep body alive
ELEVEN organ systems
11 organ systems
1. integumentary
2. skeletal
3. muscular
4. nervous
5. endocrine
6. cardiovascular
7. lymphatic/immune
8. respiratoty
9. digestive
10. urinary
11. reproductive
integumentary system
protection and heat regulation
eliminates some waste
helps make vitamin D
detects sensations
stores fat/provides insulation
skin, hair, fingernails, toenails, sweat glands, oil glands
skeletal system
support and protection
provides surface ares for muscle attachments
aids body movements
houses cells that produce blood cells
stores minerals and lipids (fats)
bones, joints and associated cartilages
muscular system
movement, posture
produces heat
skeletal muscle tissue
nervous system
coordination and control
generates nerve impulses to regulate body activity
detects changes in body internal/external environments
interprets changes
responds by causing muscular contractions or glandular secretions
brain, spinal cord, nerves, special sen
endocrine system
chemical coordination by means of hormones
regulates body activities by releasing hormones
hormone-producing glands:
pineal gland
hypothalamus
pituitary gland
thymus
thyroid gland
parathyroid glands
adrenal glands
pancreas
ovaries
testes
and hormone produ
cardiovascular system (blood circulatory system)
distribution of nutrients
heart pumps blood through blood vessels
blood carries:
-oxygen and nutrients TOWARDS cells
-carbon dioxide and wastes AWAY from cells
blood, heart, blood vessels
immune/lymphatic system
returns body fluid (lymph) to blood circulation
"immune response to infection"
long term protection from disease-causing microbes (pathogens)
lymphatic fluid and vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils
cells that carry out immune responses (B cells,
respiratory system
intake of oxygen
removal of carbon dioxide
lungs
air passageways such as:
-pharynx (throat)
-larynx (voice box)
-trachea (windpipe)
-bronchial tubes (leading in and out of lungs)
digestive system
break down of large food molecules to small absorbable molecules, physical and chemical
absorbs nutrients
eliminates waste
organs of gastrointestinal tract: (a long tube)
mouth, pharynx (throat), esophagus (food tube), stomach, small+large intestines, anu
urinary system
removal of metabolic wastes and water-ion balance
produces/stores/eliminates urine
eliminates waste and regulates volume and chemical composition of blood
help maintain the acid-base balance of body fluids
maintains mineral balances
regulate production of
reproductive system
maintain the continuity of life, by making sex cells or gametes (sperm and ova)
gonads produce gametes (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form new organism
they also release hormones that regulate reproduction and other processes
mammary glands produce milk
6 BASIC LIFE PROCESSES
1. metabolism
2. responsiveness
3. movement
4. growth
5. differentiation
6. reproduction
metabolism
maintenance of an internal state
sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body
two phases of metabolism
anabolism-building UP of complex chemical substances
catabolism- breakDOWN of complex chemical substances from smaller, simpler components
responsiveness
open to the environment
bodys ability to detect and respond to changes
movement
includes motion of whole body, individual organs, single cells, tiny structures in cells
growth
development and function
increase in body size that results from:
-increase in existing cells
-increase in # of cells
-both
differentiation
specialization
development of cell from unspecialized to specialized state
reproduction
maintenence of the species
refers to form of new cells for tissue growth, repair or replacement
OR
production of a new individual
homeostasis
condition of balance in the body internal environment
due to constant interaction of body many regulatory processes
maintained by body's regulatory processes
DOES NOT EQUAL EQUILIBRIUM
imbalances occur because of disruptions from the external or internal
blood plasma
ECF within blood vessels
lymph
within lymphatic vessels
cerebrospinal
in and around brain and spinal cord
synovial
in joints
Intracellular fluid (ICF)
fluid within cells
Extracellular fluid (ECF)
fluid outside cells
Interstitial fluid
ECF that fills narrow spaces between cells of tissues
all organ systems work together to help regulate changes in the interstitial fluid (ensures cell survival and proper tissue, organ, and system function)
ECF of the eyes
aqueous humor
vitreous
feedback system (loop)
cycle of events-status of body is monitored, eval, changed, remonitored, etc.
controlled condition
each monitored variable (temp, bp, blood glucose level)
homeostasis is maintained via _________
feedback loops
1.positive- strengthen/reinforces change in cont. condition
2. negative- reverses change in cont. condition
basic components of a feedback loop
1. receptor
2. control center
3. effector
receptor
monitors changes
sends inputs to control center
control center
brain
sets range of values
effector
receives output
produces response/effect
signaling occurs in two different directions
input- afferent signal (towards control center)
output- efferent signal (away from CC)
homeostatic imbalances
homeostasis disrupted- may result in disease, disorder, even death
can all effect your health:
genetic make-up
air you breathe
food you eat
thoughts you think
aging
normal process
progressive decline in the body ability to restore homeostasis
disorder vs disease
disorder- any abnormality of structure/function
disease- more specific term for illness
symptoms vs. signs
symptoms- SUBJECTIVE changes in body function
not apparent
signs- OBJECTIVE changes in body function
can be observed/measured
types of anatomical terminology
body positions- anatomical positions
regional names- absolute location
directional terms- relative location
planes and sections- imaginary (or real) flat surfaces crossing the body
body cavities- internal spaces that protect and separate organs
body positions
anatomical position- standard method of observation
stands erect, facing observer, upper extremities are placed at the sides, palms turned forward, feet flat on floor
reclined body:
supine- face UP
prone- face DOWN
regional names
specific regions; describes surface anatomy
head
skull and face
neck
supports head and attaches to trunk
trunk
chest
abdomen
pelvis
upper limbs
attaches to trunk
shoulder
armpit
arm (shoulder to elbow)
forearm (elbow to wrist)
wrist
hand
lower limbs
attaches to trunk
buttock
thigh (butt to knee)
leg (knee to ankle)
ankle
foot
directional terms
used to precisely locate one part of the body relative to another
superior vs. inferior
superior- TOWARDS head/upper part of structure (head is superior to liver)
inferior- AWAY from head/lower part of structure (stomach inferior to lungs)
anterior vs. posterior
anterior- nearer to/at FRONT of body (sternum [brestbone] anterior to heart)
posterior- nearer to/at BACK of body (esophagus [food tube] posterior to trachea [windpipe])
medial vs. lateral
medial- NEARER to the midline (ulna medial to radius)
lateral- FARTHER from the midline (lungs lateral to heart)
intermediate vs. ipsilateral vs. contralateral
intermediate- BETWEEN two structures (transverse colon intermediate to ascending and descending colons)
ipsilateral- SAME SIDE of body as another structure (gallbladder and ascending colon are ipsilateral)
contralateral- OPPOSITE SIDE of body as another s
proximal vs. distal
proximal- NEARER to attachment of limb to the trunk/origination of structure (humerus [arm bone] proximal to radius)
distal- FARTHER to attachment of limb to the trunk/origination of structure (phalanges [finger bones] distal to carpals [wrist bones])
superficial vs. deep
superficial- TOWARDS/ON surface of body (ribs superficial to lungs)
deep- AWAY from surface of body (ribs deep to skin of chest and back)
planes and sections
...
sagittal plane
cuts body in half vertically, divides into two sides
frontal plane
divides front from back
transverse plane
divides top half from bottom half
body cavities
cranial
vertebral
thoracic
diaphragm
abdominopelvic:
abdomen
pelvic
cranial cavity
formed by cranial bones
contains brains
vertebral cavity
formed by vertebral column
contains spinal cord and beginnings of spinal nerves
thoracic cavity
chest cavity
3 subcavities:
contains pleural and pericardial cavities and mediastinum
plural cavity
potential space between layers of the pleura that surrounds a lung
pericardial cavity
potential space between layers of the pericardium that surrounds heart
mediastinum
central portion of thoracic cavity between lungs
extends from sternum to vertebral column and from first rib to diaphragm
contains heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and several large blood vessels
Abdominopelvic cavity
subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities
abdominal cavity
contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of large intestine
serous membrane of abdominal cavity is the peritoneum
pelvic cavity
contains urinary bladder, portions of large intestines, internal organs of reproduction
cavities are outlined by
serous membranes
serous membranes
thin, double-layered membranes
reduce friction
also lines walls of thorax and abdomen and their internal organs
cavity is defined by two layers of serous membranes
visceral layer- against the organ
(all organs of thoracic and abdominal cavities are called viscera)
the serous membrane of the thoracic cavity
the pericardium and pleura
cover the heart and lungs
the serous membrane covering abdominal organs is the
peritoneum
-visceral peritoneum
-peritoneal cavity
-parietal peritoneum (lining abdominal cavity)
retroperitoneal
organs that are to surrounded by the peritoneum, they are posterior to it
medical imaging
involves techniques that generate images of internal structures
allows physicians to diagnose anatomical and physiological abnormalities and identify pathological states
ultrasound scanning-
(non-invasive)
high frequency radio sound waves- produced by hand held wand reflect off body tissue
safe, non-invasive,painless, no dyes
the image-still or moving- called sonogram and is shown on a video monitor
radionuclide scanning-
(minimally invasive)
a radionuclide (radioactive substance) is introduced intravenously and carried by the blood to the tissue to be imaged
used to study activity of a tissue or organ such as:
searching for malignant tumors in body tissue
scars that may interfere with heart m
SPECT scanning
single-photon-emission computed tomography
a specialized type of radionuclide scanning that is especially useful for studying the brain, heart, lungs, liver
endoscopy
visual examination os inside of body organs or cavities using lighted instrument with lenses called an endoscope
image is viewed through an eyepiece on the endoscope or projected onto a monitor
Major elements (about 96% of total body mass)
oxygen (O)- 65%
carbon (C)- 18.5%
hydrogen (H)- 9.5%
nitrogen (N)- 3.2%
Lesser elements (about 3.6% of total body mass)
calcium (Ca)- 1.5%
phosphorus (P)- 1.0%
potassium (K)-.35%
sulfur (S)-.25%
sodium (Na)- .2%
chlorine (Cl)- .2%
magnesium (Mg)- .1%
iron (Fe)- 0.005%
trace elements (about 0.4% of total body mass)
...
atomic number
# of protons in the nucleus of an atom
mass number
# of protons and neutrons in an atom
# of electron
same as # of protons if equal
atomic mass
# of neutrons + # of electrons
average mass of all occurring isotopes
neutron- 1.008 daltons
proton- 1.007 daltons
electron- 0.0005 daltons
isotope
...
ion
atom that has lost or gained an electron
molecule
2+ atoms sharing electrons via chemical bonds
compound
molecule made of 2+ elements and can be broken down into 2+ diff chemicals
formed via chemical bonds
chemical bond
occurs when atoms are held together by forces of attraction
the # of electrons in valence shell determines likelihood that an atom will form a chem bond w another atom
types of bonds
covalent
ionic
hydrogen bonds
van der waals forces
ionic bonds
can be pos or neg
cation (+)
anion (-)
common ions in the body
cations: (8)
hydrogen ion (H+)
sodium ion (Na+)
potassium ion (K+)
ammonium ion (NH4+)
magnesium ion (Mg^2+)
calcium ion (Ca^2+)
Iron (II) ion (Fe^2+)
Iron (III) ion (Fe^3+)
anions: (8)
fluoride ion (F-)
chloride ion (Cl-)
iodide ion (I-)
hydroxide ion (O
covalent bonds
sharing electrons within a molecule; single, double, triple bonds
dipole: slight positive and slight negative charge along opposite poles of the molecule
this dipole permits the formation of another type of bonds: hydrogen bonds
hydrogen bonds
result from attraction of oppositely, partially charged parts of molecules... these molecules have a dipole moment
cohesion
tendency of like particles to stay together
hydrogen bonds between water molecules give water cohesion
surface tension
surface tension is a measure of the difficulty of stretching/breaking the surface of a liquid
chemical reactions
occur when new bonds are formed or old bonds are broken
reactants- starting substances
products- ending substances
metabolism (chem reactions)
totality of all chemical reactions in the body
energy in chem reactions
chemical reactions either release or consume energy
energy- the capacity to do work
can be in various forms:
potential
kinetic
chemical
thermal
mechanical
law of conservation of energy
energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it can be converted from one form to another
your body is constantly converting one form of energy to another to maintain homeostasis
energy transfer
exergonic reactions (release E)
endergonic reactions (consume E)- used to store energy for later use
activation energy: required for a chemical reaction to take place
catalysts and metabolism
catalysts- allow reaction to proceed by lowering the activation energy
they do not change the total energy of the reaction
they do not add energy to endergonic reactions (or store energy from exergonic)
therefore, the body metabolism requires the coupling
types of chemical reactions in your body
1. synthesis
2. decomposition
3. exchange
4. reversible
5. oxidation-reduction
oxidation-reduction
these reactions transfer electrons between atoms and molecules and always occur in parallel (when one substance is oxidized another is reduced
inorganic vs. organic compounds
inorganic- usually lack carbon and are simple molecules
water- most important and abundant inorganic compound in all living things
water
ideal medium
has a:
high heat capacity
high heat of vaporization
major component of our body fluids and helps reduce friction as membranes and organs slide over one another
participates in chemical reactions
hydrolysis reaction
water is ADDED to BREAK bonds
dehydration synthesis reaction
water is REMOVED to MAKE bonds
mixtures
combo of elements/compounds that are physically blended together but not bonded together
can be liquid, solid, or gas
3 types of mixtures
1. solution- small particles in liquid
2. colloid- medium particles in liquid
3. suspension- larger particles in liquid- tend to settle out and separate on their own
percentage and molarity
percentage (mass per vol)- # of grams of a substance per 100 mL of solution
molarity (moles per liter)- a 1 molar (1 M)= 1 mole of a solute in 1 liter of a solution
pH
scale to measure the concentration of H+ in solution
maintaining blood and interstitial fluid pH near 7.4 is CRITICAL for the human body
buffer systems
buffers are chemicals that regulate pH by donating or removing H+ from the solution
buffer systems help to regulate pH by converting strong acids or bases into weak acids or bases